Ludwig XIV. (Louis Dieudonné; 5. September 1638 - 1. September 1715), bekannt als Ludwig der Große ( Louis le Grand ) oder der Sonnenkönig ( Roi Soleil ), war ein Monarch des Hauses Bourbon, der von 1643 bis zu seinem Tod 1715 als König von Frankreich regierte. Beginnend am 14. Mai 1643, als Ludwig 4 Jahre alt war, war seine Regierung von 72 Jahren und 110 Tagen ist die längste Aufzeichnung aller Monarchen eines souveränen Landes in der europäischen Geschichte. [1][note 1] Im Zeitalter des Absolutismus in Europa war Frankreich Frankreichs Ludwig XIV. führend in der wachsenden Zentralisierung der Macht. [2]
Louis begann Seine persönliche Herrschaft über Frankreich im Jahre 1661, nach dem Tod seines Ministerpräsidenten, des italienischen Kardinals Mazarin. [3] Ein Anhänger des Begriffs des göttlichen Königsrechts, der den göttlichen Ursprung der monarchischen Herrschaft befürwortet, setzte Louis seine Vorgänger fort. die Schaffung eines zentralisierten Staates, der aus der Hauptstadt regiert wird. Er versuchte, die in Teilen Frankreichs bestehenden Reste des Feudalismus zu beseitigen, und indem er viele Mitglieder des Adels dazu zwang, seinen verschwenderischen Palast von Versailles zu besiedeln, gelang es ihm, die Aristokratie zu befriedigen, von der viele Mitglieder an der Rebellion von Fronde während der Minderheit von Louis teilgenommen hatten . Auf diese Weise wurde er einer der mächtigsten französischen Monarchen und konsolidierte ein System der absoluten monarchischen Herrschaft in Frankreich, das bis zur Französischen Revolution Bestand hatte.
Louis ermutigte und profitierte von der Arbeit bekannter politischer, militärischer und kultureller Persönlichkeiten wie Mazarin, Colbert, Louvois, Grand Condé, Turenne, Sébastien Le Prestre Vauban, André Charles Boulle, Molière, Racine, Boileau, La Fontaine, Lully, Marais, Le Brun, Rigaud, Bossuet, Le Vau, Mansart, Charles, Claude Perrault und Le Nôtre. Unter seiner Herrschaft wurde das Edikt von Nantes, das Rechte an den Hugenotten einräumte, abgeschafft. Der Widerruf zwang die Hugenotten effektiv, in einer Welle von Dragonnaden auszuwandern oder zu konvertieren, was die französische protestantische Minderheit praktisch zerstören konnte.
Während Ludwigs Regierungszeit war Frankreich die führende europäische Macht und führte drei große Kriege: den Deutsch-Französischen Krieg, den Augsburger Krieg und den Spanischen Erbfolgekrieg. Es gab auch zwei kleinere Konflikte: den Kriege der Verwandlung und den Krieg der Wiedervereinigungen. Die Kriegsführung bestimmte die Außenpolitik Ludwigs XIV. Und seine Persönlichkeit prägte seinen Ansatz. "Durch eine Mischung aus Handel, Rache und Pik" angetrieben, spürte Louis, dass die Kriegsführung der ideale Weg sei, um seinen Ruhm zu verstärken. In Friedenszeiten konzentrierte er sich auf die Vorbereitung auf den nächsten Krieg. Er lehrte seine Diplomaten, ihre Aufgabe bestehe darin, taktische und strategische Vorteile für das französische Militär zu schaffen. [4]
Frühe Jahre [ ]
Ludwig XIV. Wurde am 5. September 1638 im Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye als Sohn von Ludwig XIII. Und Anne von Österreich geboren. Er wurde Louis Dieudonné (Louis der Gott gegeben) [5] genannt und trug den traditionellen Titel der französischen Erben anscheinend: Dauphin . [6] Zum Zeitpunkt seiner Geburt waren seine Eltern 23 Jahre alt gewesen Jahre. Seine Mutter hatte zwischen 1619 und 1631 vier Totgeburten erlebt. Führende Zeitgenossen betrachteten ihn daher als eine göttliche Gabe und seine Geburt als ein Wunder Gottes.
Ludwig XIII., Der den unmittelbar bevorstehenden Tod wahrnahm, beschloss, seine Angelegenheiten im Frühjahr 1643 in Ordnung zu bringen, als Ludwig XIV. Vier Jahre alt war. Trotz der Sitte, die Königin Anne zum einzigen Regenten Frankreichs gemacht hätte, ordnete der König an, dass ein Regentschaftsrat für seinen Sohn herrschen würde. Sein mangelndes Vertrauen in die politischen Fähigkeiten von Queen Anne war sein Hauptgrund. Er machte jedoch das Zugeständnis, ihren Ratschef zu ernennen.
Louis 'Beziehung zu seiner Mutter war zu dieser Zeit ungewöhnlich zärtlich. Zeitgenossen und Augenzeugen behaupteten, die Königin würde ihre ganze Zeit mit Louis verbringen. Beide hatten großes Interesse an Essen und Theater, und es war sehr wahrscheinlich, dass Louis diese Interessen durch seine enge Beziehung zu seiner Mutter entwickelte. Diese langanhaltende und liebevolle Beziehung kann durch Auszüge aus Louis 'Journaleinträgen belegt werden, wie zum Beispiel:
"Die Natur war für die ersten Knoten verantwortlich, die mich an meine Mutter gebunden haben. Aber Bindungen, die später durch gemeinsame Eigenschaften des Geistes gebildet wurden, sind viel schwieriger zu brechen als die bloß gebildeten." [7]
Es war seine Mutter, die gab Louis seinen Glauben an die absolute und göttliche Macht seiner monarchischen Herrschaft. [8]
In seiner Kindheit wurde er von den Gouvernanten Françoise de Lansac und Marie-Catherine de Senecey betreut. 1646 wurde Nicolas V de Villeroy der Lehrer des jungen Königs. Ludwig XIV. Freundete sich mit den jungen Kindern von Villeroy an, insbesondere François de Villeroy, und teilte seine Zeit zwischen dem Palais-Royal und dem nahe gelegenen Hotel de Villeroy.
Minderheit und die Fronde [ edit ]
Beitritt [ edit
Am 19. Mai 1643 mit Louis XIII starb, Königin Anne hatte das Testament ihres Mannes durch das Pariser Parlement de 1945 aufgehoben (eine juristische Körperschaft, die hauptsächlich aus Adligen und hohen Geistlichen bestand). Durch diese Aktion wurde der Regentschaftsrat abgeschafft und Anne zum einzigen Regenten Frankreichs gemacht. Anne verbannte einige Minister ihres Mannes (Chavigny, Bouthilier), und sie ernannte Brienne zu ihrem Außenminister. Anne nominierte Saint Vincent de Paul zu ihrem spirituellen Berater, der ihr half, sich mit der Religionspolitik und der Jansenismus-Frage auseinanderzusetzen.
Anne behielt die Richtung der Religionspolitik bis 1661 in der Hand. Ihre wichtigsten politischen Entscheidungen bestanden darin, Kardinal Mazarin als ihren Ministerpräsidenten zu ernennen und die Politik ihres verstorbenen Mannes und Kardinal Richelieu trotz ihrer Verfolgung wegen ihres Sohnes fortzusetzen. Anne wollte ihrem Sohn absolute Autorität und ein siegreiches Königreich geben. Ihre Gründe für die Wahl von Mazarin waren hauptsächlich seine Fähigkeiten und seine völlige Abhängigkeit von ihr, zumindest bis 1653, als sie nicht mehr Regentin war. Anne beschützte Mazarin, indem er ihre Anhänger, die sich 1643 gegen ihn verschworen hatten, verhaftet und ins Exil geschickt hatte: den Herzog von Beaufort und Marie de Rohan. [12] Sie überließ Kardinal Mazarin die Leitung der täglichen Verwaltung der Politik.
Das beste Beispiel für Annes Staatskunst und die partielle Veränderung ihres Herzens in Richtung Spaniens Heimat zeigt sich in der Wahrnehmung eines Mannes von Richelieu, des französischen Kanzlers Pierre Séguier in seinem Posten. Séguier war die Person, die Anne im Jahr 1637 verhört hatte und sie wie einen "gewöhnlichen Verbrecher" behandelte, als sie ihre Behandlung beschrieb, nachdem sie entdeckt hatte, dass sie Militärgeheimnisse und Informationen an Spanien weitergegeben hatte. Anne stand während der Herrschaft ihres Mannes mehrere Jahre unter Hausarrest und wurde vom Kanzler nach bestimmten Quellen physisch durchsucht und beinahe beleidigt [] . Indem er ihn auf seinem Posten behielt, gab er ein Zeichen, dass die Interessen Frankreichs und ihres Sohns Louis der Leitgedanke all ihrer politischen und rechtlichen Schritte waren. Obwohl sie nicht unbedingt gegen Spanien war, versuchte sie den Krieg mit einem französischen Sieg zu beenden, um einen dauerhaften Frieden zwischen den katholischen Nationen zu schaffen.
Die Königin gab der französischen Außenpolitik auch eine teilweise katholische Orientierung. Dies wurde von den Niederlanden, dem protestantischen Verbündeten Frankreichs, wahrgenommen, das 1648 einen separaten Frieden mit Spanien aushandelte. [13]
1648 verhandelten Anne und Mazarin den Westfälischen Frieden, der den Dreißigsten Frieden beendete Jahre Krieg in Deutschland. Seine Bedingungen sicherten die niederländische Unabhängigkeit von Spanien zu, gewährten den verschiedenen deutschen Fürsten des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Autonomie und gewährten Schweden Sitze im Reichstag und in Gebieten, um die Mündungen der Oder, der Elbe und der Weser zu kontrollieren. Frankreich profitierte jedoch am meisten von der Siedlung. Österreich, das vom Habsburger Kaiser Ferdinand III. Regiert wurde, übergab alle habsburgischen Länder und Ansprüche im Elsass an Frankreich und anerkannte sie de facto Souveränität über die drei Bistümer Metz, Verdun und Toul. Außerdem suchten die kleinen deutschen Staaten, die sich von der habsburgischen Herrschaft emanzipieren wollten, französischen Schutz. Damit wurde die Bildung der Rheinliga von 1658 vorweggenommen, die zur weiteren Abnahme der imperialen Macht führte.
Frühe Taten [ edit ]
Als der Dreißigjährige Krieg zu Ende ging, wurde als Bürgerkrieg Fronde (nach den Schlingen) bekannt zerschlagene Fenster) brach in Frankreich aus. Sie hat die Fähigkeit Frankreichs, den Westfälischen Frieden auszunutzen, wirksam geprüft. Anne und Mazarin hatten die Politik von Kardinal Richelieu weitgehend verfolgt und die Macht der Krone auf Kosten des Adels und der -Partments ausgebaut. Anne mischte sich viel mehr in die Innenpolitik ein als in die Außenpolitik. Sie war eine sehr stolze Königin, die auf den göttlichen Rechten des Königs von Frankreich beharrte. Zitat benötigt ]
All dies veranlaßte sie, sich für eine kraftvolle Politik in allen Angelegenheiten des Königs einzusetzen Autorität, auf eine Weise, die viel radikaler war als die von Mazarin vorgeschlagene. Der Kardinal war völlig auf Annes Unterstützung angewiesen und musste all seinen Einfluss auf die Königin ausüben, um eine Aufhebung der Gewalt zu vermeiden, aber um einige ihrer radikalen Aktionen zu behindern. Anne hat jeden Aristokraten oder Parlamentsabgeordneten inhaftiert, der ihren Willen herausgefordert hat; Ihr Hauptziel war es, ihrem Sohn eine absolute Autorität in den Bereichen Finanzen und Justiz zu übertragen. Einer der Anführer des Pariser Parlaments, den sie inhaftiert hatte, starb im Gefängnis. [14]
Die Frondeurs versuchten, die politischen Erben der unzufriedenen Feudalaristokratie zu suchen schützen ihre traditionellen Feudalprivilegien vor der zunehmend zentralisierten königlichen Regierung. Darüber hinaus glaubten sie, dass ihr traditioneller Einfluss und ihre Autorität von den kürzlich geadelten Bürokraten (den Noblesse de Robe oder "Adel der Robe"), die das Königreich verwalteten und an dem die Monarchie zunehmend begann, usurpiert wurden vertrauen. Dieser Glaube verstärkte den Groll der Adligen. Zitat erforderlich
1648 versuchten Anne und Mazarin, Mitglieder des Parlement de Paris zu besteuern. Die Mitglieder lehnten dies ab und ordneten an, dass alle früheren finanziellen Erlasse des Königs verbrannt wurden. Durch den Sieg von Louis Louis, Duc d'Enghien (später bekannt als le Grand Condé ) in der Schlacht von Lens ermutigt, verhaftete Mazarin auf Drängen von Anne Anne bestimmte Mitglieder in einer Show [15] Die wichtigste Festnahme aus Annes Sicht betraf Pierre Broussel, einen der wichtigsten Führer des Parlement de Paris .
. Die Menschen in Frankreich beschwerten sich über die Ausweitung der königlichen Autorität, den hohen Steuersatz und die Einschränkung der Autorität des Parlement de Paris und andere regionale Vertretungen. Paris brach daraufhin aus, und Anne wurde gezwungen, Broussel unter starkem Druck zu befreien. Darüber hinaus brach eine Menge wütender Pariser in den königlichen Palast ein und verlangte, ihren König zu sehen. In das königliche Schlafgemach geführt, blickten sie auf Louis, der den Schlaf vortäuschte, wurden beruhigt und gingen dann ruhig davon. Die Bedrohung der königlichen Familie veranlasste Anne, mit dem König und seinen Höflingen aus Paris zu fliehen.
Kurz darauf erlaubte der Abschluß des Westfälischen Friedens, Condés Armee zurückzukehren, um Louis und seinem Gericht zu helfen. Condés Familie stand zu dieser Zeit in der Nähe von Anne und er stimmte zu, ihr zu helfen, die Autorität des Königs wiederherzustellen. [16] Die Armee der Königin, angeführt von Condé, griff die Rebellen in Paris an; Die Rebellen standen unter der politischen Kontrolle von Annes alter Freundin Marie de Rohan. Beaufort, der vor fünf Jahren aus dem Gefängnis geflüchtet war, in dem Anne ihn eingesperrt hatte, war der militärische Anführer in Paris, das von Conti nominell kontrolliert wurde. Nach einigen Schlachten wurde ein politischer Kompromiss erreicht; der Frieden von Rueil wurde unterzeichnet und das Gericht kehrte nach Paris zurück.
Unglücklicherweise für Anne hing ihr Teilsieg von Condé ab, der die Königin kontrollieren und den Einfluss von Mazarin zerstören wollte. Es war Condés Schwester, die ihn dazu drängte, sich gegen die Königin zu wenden. Nachdem sie einen Vertrag mit ihrer alten Freundin Marie de Rohan geschlossen hatte, die die Ernennung von Charles de l'Aubespine, Marquis de Châteauneuf als Justizministerin durchsetzen konnte, verhaftete Anne Condé, seinen Bruder Armand de Bourbon, Prinz von Conti und der Ehemann ihrer Schwester Anne Genevieve de Bourbon, Herzogin von Longueville. Diese Situation hielt nicht lange an, und Mazarins Unbeliebtheit führte zur Bildung einer Koalition, die hauptsächlich von Marie de Rohan und der Herzogin von Longueville angeführt wurde. Diese aristokratische Koalition war stark genug, um die Prinzen, das Exil Mazarin, zu befreien und der Königin Anne einen virtuellen Hausarrest aufzuerlegen.
Alle diese Ereignisse wurden von Louis miterlebt und erklärten größtenteils sein späteres Misstrauen gegenüber Paris und der höheren Aristokratie. [17] "In gewissem Sinne endete Louis 'Kindheit mit dem Ausbruch der Fronde. Es war nicht nur das." Das Leben wurde unsicher und unangenehm - ein Schicksal, das vielen Kindern aller Altersgruppen zuteil wurde - aber dass Louis in das Vertrauen seiner Mutter und Mazarin und in politische und militärische Angelegenheiten aufgenommen werden musste, über die er kein tiefes Verständnis haben konnte. "Das Familienheim wurde zeitweise zu einem Gefängnis in der Nähe, in dem Paris aufgegeben werden musste, nicht auf sorglosen Ausflügen in andere Schlösser, sondern auf demütigenden Flügen." Die königliche Familie wurde auf diese Weise zweimal aus Paris vertrieben. Einmal wurden Louis XIV und Anne im Pariser Königspalast unter virtueller Verhaftung festgehalten. Die Fronde-Jahre haben in Louis einen Haß auf Paris gepflanzt und eine konsequente Entschlossenheit, so schnell wie möglich die antike Hauptstadt zu verlassen, um niemals zurückzukehren.
Ebenso wie der erste Fronde (der Fronde parlementaire von 1648–1649) endete, ein zweiter (die Fronde des princes [19659003 von 1650–1653) begann. Im Gegensatz zu dem, was vorhergegangen war, prägten Geschichten über schmutzige Intrigen und halbherzige Kriegsführung diese zweite Phase des Aufstands der Oberklasse. Für die Aristokratie bedeutete diese Rebellion einen Protest und eine Umkehrung ihrer politischen Herabstufung von Vasallen zu Höflingen. Es wurde von den ranghöchsten französischen Adligen angeführt, darunter Louis 'Onkel Gaston, Herzog von Orléans und die erste Cousine Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Herzogin von Montpensier, bekannt als la Grande Mademoiselle ; Fürsten des Blutes wie Condé, sein Bruder Armand de Bourbon, Prinz von Conti und ihre Schwester, die Herzogin von Longueville; Herzöge legitimierter königlicher Abstammung, wie Henri, Herzog von Longueville, und François, Herzog von Beaufort; sogenannte "fremde Fürsten" wie Frédéric Maurice, Herzog von Bouillon, sein Bruder Marschall Turenne, und Marie de Rohan, Herzogin von Chevreuse; und Sprösslinge von Frankreichs ältesten Familien wie François de La Rochefoucauld.
Königin Anne spielte die wichtigste Rolle bei der Überwindung der Fronde, weil sie ihrem Sohn absolute Autorität übertragen wollte. Darüber hinaus weigerten sich die meisten Fürsten, sich mit Mazarin zu beschäftigen, der einige Jahre ins Exil ging. Die Frondeurs behaupteten, im Namen von Louis und in seinem wirklichen Interesse gegen seine Mutter und Mazarin zu handeln.
Königin Anne hatte eine sehr enge Beziehung zum Kardinal, und viele Beobachter glaubten, dass Mazarin durch eine geheime Ehe mit Königin Anne der Stiefvater von Louis XIV wurde. Louis 'Kommen des Alters und die anschließende Krönung beraubten sie jedoch des Frondeurs Vorwand für einen Aufstand. Die Fronde verlor so allmählich an Kraft und endete 1653, als Mazarin triumphierend aus dem Exil zurückkehrte. Von diesem Zeitpunkt an war Mazarin bis zu seinem Tod für die Außen- und Finanzpolitik ohne die tägliche Aufsicht von Anne verantwortlich, die nicht mehr die Regentin war. [21]
In dieser Zeit verliebte sich Louis in Mazarins Nichte Marie Mancini, aber Anne und Mazarin beendeten die Verliebtheit des Königs, indem sie Mancini aus dem Gericht schickten und in Italien heirateten. Während Mazarin für kurze Zeit in Versuchung geraten war, seine Nichte mit dem König von Frankreich zu verheiraten, war Königin Anne absolut dagegen; Sie wollte ihren Sohn aus dynastischen und politischen Gründen mit der Tochter ihres Bruders Philipp IV. von Spanien heiraten. Mazarin unterstützte bald die Position der Königin, weil er wusste, dass ihre Unterstützung für seine Macht und seine Außenpolitik davon abhingen, dass sie mit Spanien aus einer starken Position und der spanischen Ehe Frieden schließen konnte. Außerdem waren Mazarins Beziehungen zu Marie Mancini nicht gut und er vertraute ihr nicht, um seine Position zu unterstützen. Louis 'Tränen und sein Flehen an seine Mutter ließen sie nicht umstimmen; Die spanische Ehe war sowohl für die Beendigung des Krieges zwischen Frankreich und Spanien als auch für die Tatsache, dass viele der Ansprüche und Ziele der Außenpolitik von Louis in den nächsten 50 Jahren auf dieser Ehe beruhen, sehr wichtig. [22]
Reformen [ edit ]
Alterung und frühe Reformen [ edit ]
Louis XIV wurde mit 7 Jahren volljährig erklärt September 1651. Nach dem Tod von Mazarin im März 1661 übernahm Louis die persönliche Kontrolle über die Regierung und überraschte sein Gericht, als er erklärte, er würde ohne einen Ministerpräsidenten regieren: "Bislang war ich froh, die Regierung anzuvertrauen Meine Angelegenheiten an den verstorbenen Kardinal: Es ist jetzt an der Zeit, dass ich sie selbst regiere. Sie [he was talking to the secretaries and ministers of state] werden mir mit Ihren Ratschlägen behilflich sein, wenn ich sie frage. Ich fordere Sie auf und befehle Ihnen, keine Befehle außer auf Befehl zu besiegeln. Ich befehle Ihnen, nichts zu unterschreiben, nicht einmal einen Pass ... ohne meinen c Befehl; mir persönlich jeden Tag Rechenschaft abzulegen und niemanden zu bevorzugen ". [23] Louis konnte aus der weit verbreiteten öffentlichen Sehnsucht nach Recht und Ordnung, die aus lang anhaltenden Auslandskriegen und innenpolitischen Konflikten resultierte, Kapital konsolidieren, um die politische Zentralbehörde weiter zu konsolidieren und Reform auf Kosten der feudalen Aristokratie. Der Historiker Chateaubriand lobte seine Fähigkeit, talentierte Männer zu wählen und zu ermutigen, und sagte: "Es ist die Stimme eines Genies aller Art, die aus dem Grab von Louis klingt". [24]
Louis begann seine persönliche Regierung mit Verwaltungs- und Steuerreformen. 1661 geriet die Staatskasse in die Insolvenz. Um die Situation zu verbessern, wählte Louis 1665 Jean-Baptiste Colbert als Controller-General of Finances. Allerdings musste Louis zunächst Nicolas Fouquet, den Superintendent of Finances, neutralisieren, um Colbert freie Hand zu lassen, obwohl Fouquets finanzielle Indiskretionen sich nicht wesentlich von Mazarins vor ihm oder Colb unterschieden Er ist hinter ihm her, sein Ehrgeiz machte Louis Sorgen. Er hatte zum Beispiel in Vaux-le-Vicomte ein opulentes Schloss gebaut, in dem er Louis und seinen Hof aufdringlich unterhielt, als wäre er reicher als der König selbst. Das Gericht hatte den Eindruck, dass die riesigen Geldsummen, die zur Unterstützung seines Lebensstils erforderlich waren, nur durch Veruntreuung von Staatsgeldern erzielt werden konnten.
Fouquet schien darauf bedacht zu sein, Mazarin und Richelieu bei der Machtübernahme zu folgen, und er kaufte indiskret die abgelegene Insel Belle Île und befestigte sie privat. Diese Taten besiegelten sein Schicksal. Fouquet wurde wegen Unterschlagung angeklagt. Das Parlement befand ihn schuldig und verurteilte ihn zum Exil. Louis veränderte das Urteil jedoch in lebenslange Haft und schaffte Fouquets Posten ab.
Nachdem Fouquet entlassen wurde, reduzierte Colbert die Staatsverschuldung durch eine effizientere Besteuerung. Zu den Hauptsteuern gehörten die aides und douans (beide Zölle), die gabelle (eine Salzsteuer) und der taille . (eine Grundsteuer). taille wurde zunächst reduziert; Finanzbeamte waren gezwungen, reguläre Konten zu führen, bestimmte Steuern zu versteigern, anstatt sie privat an einen bevorzugten Staat zu verkaufen, Inventuren zu überarbeiten und nicht genehmigte Ausnahmen zu entfernen (zum Beispiel erreichten 1661 nur 10 Prozent der königlichen Domäne den König). Die Reform erwies sich als schwierig, da das Taille von Offizieren der Krone erhoben wurde, die ihren Posten zu einem hohen Preis erworben hatten: Die Bestrafung von Missbrauch senkte notwendigerweise den Wert des Posten. Trotzdem wurden hervorragende Ergebnisse erzielt: Das Defizit von 1661 wurde 1666 zu einem Überschuss. Die Zinsen für die Verschuldung wurden von 52 Millionen auf 24 Millionen Livres reduziert. Taille wurde 1661 auf 42 Millionen und 1665 auf 35 Millionen reduziert; schließlich stiegen die Einnahmen aus der indirekten Besteuerung von 26 Millionen auf 55 Millionen. Die Einnahmen der königlichen Domäne wurden von 80.000 Livres im Jahr 1661 auf 5,5 Millionen Livres im Jahr 1671 erhöht. Im Jahr 1661 entsprachen die Einnahmen 26 Millionen Britischen Pfund, von denen 10 Millionen die Schatzkammer erreichten. Die Ausgaben beliefen sich auf rund 18 Millionen Pfund, was ein Defizit von 8 Millionen ergab. Im Jahr 1667 waren die Nettoeinnahmen auf 20 Millionen Pfund Sterling gestiegen, während die Ausgaben auf 11 Millionen gesunken waren und ein Überschuss von 9 Millionen Pfund übrig blieb.
Zur Unterstützung der reorganisierten und erweiterten Armee, der Versammlung von Versailles und der wachsenden Zivilverwaltung benötigte der König viel Geld. Die Finanzwelt war immer der Schwachpunkt in der französischen Monarchie: Die Erhebung von Steuern war kostspielig und ineffizient; direkte Steuern wurden von vielen zwischengeschalteten Beamten gehandhabt; und indirekte Steuern wurden von privaten Konzessionären, sogenannten Tax Farmern, erhoben, die einen erheblichen Gewinn erzielten. Folglich erhielt der Staat immer viel weniger als die Steuerzahler tatsächlich gezahlt hatten.
Die Hauptschwäche ergab sich aus einem alten Handel zwischen der französischen Krone und dem Adel: Der König könnte ohne Zustimmung die Steuern erheben, wenn er nur die Adligen nicht besteuern würde. Nur die "benachteiligten" Klassen zahlten direkte Steuern, und dieser Begriff bezog sich nur auf die Bauern, da viele Bourgeois auf die eine oder andere Weise Ausnahmen erhielten.
Das System war äußerst ungerecht, als es den Armen und Hilflosen eine hohe Steuerlast auferlegte. Später, nach 1700, konnten die französischen Minister, die von Louis 'heimlicher Ehefrau Madame De Maintenon unterstützt wurden, den König dazu bringen, seine Steuerpolitik zu ändern. Louis war bereit genug, die Adligen zu besteuern, war aber nicht bereit, unter ihre Kontrolle zu fallen, und erst gegen Ende seiner Herrschaft konnte er unter extremem Kriegsdruck zum ersten Mal in der französischen Geschichte direkte Steuern auf das Land erheben aristokratische Elemente der Bevölkerung. Dies war ein Schritt auf dem Weg zur Gleichheit vor dem Gesetz und zu einer soliden Staatsfinanzierung, aber so viele Zugeständnisse und Befreiungen wurden von Adligen und Bürgern gewonnen, dass die Reform viel an Wert verlor. [25]
Louis und Colbert hatte auch weitreichende Pläne, um den französischen Handel und Handel zu stärken. Colberts merkantilistische Verwaltung etablierte neue Industrien und förderte Hersteller und Erfinder wie die Lyoner Seidenhersteller und die Manufaktur Gobelins, einen Hersteller von Wandteppichen. Er lud Hersteller und Kunsthandwerker aus ganz Europa nach Frankreich ein, darunter Murano-Glasmacher, schwedische Eisenarbeiter und niederländische Schiffsbauer. Auf diese Weise zielte er darauf ab, die ausländischen Importe zu verringern und gleichzeitig die französischen Exporte zu erhöhen, wodurch der Nettoabfluss von Edelmetallen aus Frankreich verringert wurde.
Louis führte durch Michel le Tellier und dessen Sohn François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, Reformen in der Militärverwaltung ein. Sie halfen dabei, den unabhängigen Geist des Adels einzudämmen, indem sie ihnen vor Gericht und in der Armee eine Ordnung auferlegten. Vorbei waren die Zeiten, in denen Generäle den Krieg an den Grenzen währten, während sie um Prioritäten stritten und Befehle aus der Hauptstadt und das größere politisch-diplomatische Bild ignorierten. Die alte Militäraristokratie (19459005 Noblesse d'épée oder "Adel des Schwertes") hörte auf, ein Monopol über höhere militärische Positionen und Rang zu haben. Insbesondere Louvois verpflichtete sich, die Armee zu modernisieren und zu einer professionellen, disziplinierten, gut ausgebildeten Truppe umzuorganisieren. Er widmete sich dem materiellen Wohlbefinden und der Moral der Soldaten und versuchte sogar, Kampagnen zu lenken.
Beziehungen zu den großen Kolonien [ edit ]
Rechtsfragen entzogen Louis nicht die Aufmerksamkeit, wie sich in den zahlreichen "Großen Verordnungen" zeigt, die er erlassen hat. Das vorrevolutionäre Frankreich war ein Flickenteppich von Rechtssystemen, mit ebenso vielen Rechtsgewohnheiten wie Provinzen und zwei parallel existierenden Rechtstraditionen - dem Gewohnheitsrecht im Norden und dem römischen Zivilrecht im Süden. [26] Grande Die Ordonnance de Procédure Civile von 1667, auch bekannt als Code Louis war ein umfassendes Gesetzesgesetz, das eine einheitliche Regelung des Zivilverfahrens im rechtlich unregelmäßigen Frankreich anstrebte. Unter anderem wurden Tauf-, Heirats- und Sterberegister in den staatlichen Registern und nicht in den Kirchenbüchern vorgeschrieben, und es wurde das Recht der Parlements streng reglementiert. [27] Louis ] spielte eine wichtige Rolle in der französischen Rechtsgeschichte als Grundlage für den napoleonischen Kodex, aus dem sich viele moderne Rechtsordnungen ableiten.
Eine von Louis 'berüchtigten Dekreten war der Grande Ordonnance sur les Colonies von 1685, auch bekannt als Code Noir ("schwarzer Code"). Obwohl die Sklaverei sanktioniert wurde, versuchte sie die Praxis zu humanisieren, indem sie die Trennung von Familien untersagte. In den Kolonien konnten außerdem nur Katholiken Sklaven besitzen, die getauft werden mussten.
Louis regierte durch mehrere Räte:
- Conseil d'en haut ("Hoher Rat", in Bezug auf die wichtigsten Angelegenheiten des Staates) - bestehend aus dem König, dem Kronprinzen, dem Generalfinanzminister (Finanzminister) und den zuständigen Staatssekretären verschiedener Abteilungen. Die Mitglieder dieses Rates wurden als Staatsminister bezeichnet.
- Conseil des dépêches ("Rat der Botschaften", betreffend Notizen und Verwaltungsberichte der Provinzen).
- Conseil de Conscience ("Rat des Gewissens", betreffend religiöse Angelegenheiten und bischöfliche Ernennungen).
- Conseil Royal Des Finances ("Königlicher Finanzrat"), der vom "Chef des Conseil des Finances" (in den meisten Fällen eine Ehrenstelle) geleitet wurde - dies war eine der wenigen Ämter in der Rat, der für die hohe Aristokratie geöffnet wurde. [28]
Frühe Kriege in den Niederlanden [ edit ]
Spanien [
Der Tod von König Philipp IV. von Spanien im Jahr 1665 führte zu einem Auslöser des Krieges der Devolution. Im Jahr 1660 hatte Louis die älteste Tochter von Philipp IV., Maria Theresia, als eine der Bestimmungen des Pyrenäenvertrags von 1659 geheiratet. Der Ehevertrag sah vor, dass Maria Theresia auf sich selbst und alle ihre Nachkommen auf spanisches Territorium verzichten sollte. Mazarin und Lionne machten den Verzicht jedoch von der vollständigen Zahlung einer spanischen Mitgift in Höhe von 500.000 Ecu abhängig. [30] Die Mitgift wurde nie bezahlt und sollte später dazu beitragen, dass Karl II. Von Spanien sein Reich Philip, Herzog von, überließ Anjou (später Philipp V. von Spanien), der Enkel von Louis und Maria Theresia.
Der Devolionskrieg konzentrierte sich nicht auf die Zahlung der Mitgift, vielmehr war es der Mangel an Bezahlung, den Ludwig XIV. Als Vorwand verwendete, um Maria Theresias Verzicht auf ihre Ansprüche für nichtig zu erklären, wodurch das Land sich "entfalten" konnte. In Brabant (dem Ort, an dem sich das streitige Land befindet) wurden Kinder aus der ersten Ehe traditionell nicht durch die Wiedereingliederungen ihrer Eltern benachteiligt und erbten immer noch Eigentum. Louis 'Ehefrau war Philip IVs Tochter aus erster Ehe, während der neue König von Spanien, Charles II., Sein Sohn durch eine spätere Ehe war. Brabant hat sich angeblich an Maria Theresia "übergeben". Diese Entschuldigung erlaubte Frankreich, die spanischen Niederlande anzugreifen.
Beziehungen zu den Niederlanden [ edit ]
Interne Probleme in der niederländischen Republik unterstützten die Entwürfe von Louis. Der damals prominenteste Politiker der niederländischen Republik, der "Grand Pensionary" Johan de Witt, fürchtete den Ehrgeiz des jungen William III., Prinz von Oranien, insbesondere die Enteignung seiner höchsten Macht und die Wiederherstellung des Hauses Oranien Einfluss, den es vor dem Tod von Wilhelm II., Prinz von Oranien, gehabt hatte. Die Niederländer waren daher anfangs mehr mit inneren Angelegenheiten beschäftigt als der Vormarsch der Franzosen in spanisches Hoheitsgebiet. Darüber hinaus waren die Franzosen im laufenden Anglo-Holländischen Krieg nominell ihre Verbündeten gegen die Engländer. Die Niederländer waren geschockt über die Schnelligkeit französischer Erfolge und aus Angst vor der Zukunft. Sie beschlossen, ihre nominellen Verbündeten aufzugeben und Frieden mit England zu schließen. Englisch: www.germnews.de/archive/dn/1996/05/28.html Die Engländer und Holländer bildeten 1668 ein Dreibund. Die Gefahr einer Eskalation des Konflikts in den Niederlanden und eines Geheimvertrages, der die spanische Erbfolge mit dem römischen Kaiser Leopold I., dem anderen großen Anspruchsberechtigten auf dem Thron von,, abtrennte Spanien veranlaßte Louis, Frieden zu schließen.
Das Dreibund dauerte nicht sehr lange. 1670 erwarb französisches Gold den Beitritt Karls II. Von England zum geheimen Vertrag von Dover. Frankreich und England erklärten 1672 zusammen mit einigen rheinischen Fürsten der niederländischen Republik den Krieg und lösten den französisch-niederländischen Krieg aus. Die schnelle Invasion und Besetzung der meisten Niederlande führte zu einem Staatsstreich, der De Witt stürzte und Wilhelm III. An die Macht brachte.
Im Jahr 1674, als Frankreich die Unterstützung Englands verlor, das im Rahmen des Westminster-Vertrags für den Frieden verklagt worden war, erhielt Wilhelm III. Die Hilfe von Spanien, Kaiser Leopold I. und dem Rest des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Gebiet der niederländischen Republik. Trotz dieser Rückschläge triumphierten die Franzosen weiterhin gegen die überwältigenden gegnerischen Kräfte. Innerhalb weniger Wochen, im Jahre 1674, eroberten die französischen Truppen unter Führung von Louis die gesamte spanische Franche-Comté. Despite being greatly outnumbered, Condé trounced William III's coalition army of Austrians, Dutchmen, and Spaniards at the Battle of Seneffe, and prevented him from descending on Paris. Another outnumbered general, Turenne, conducted a daring and brilliant campaign in the winter of 1674–1675 against the Imperial armies under Raimondo Montecuccoli, driving them back across the Rhine river out of Alsace, which had been invaded. Through a series of feints, marches, and counter-marches in 1678, Louis besieged and captured Ghent.
By placing Louis in a military position far superior to that of his enemies, these victories brought the war to a speedy end. Six years of war had exhausted Europe, and peace negotiations were soon concluded in 1678 with the Treaty of Nijmegen. Although Louis returned all the Dutch territory he had captured, he retained the Franche-Comté and gained more land in the Spanish Netherlands.
The conclusion of a general peace permitted Louis to intervene in the Scanian War in 1679, on behalf of his ally Sweden. He forced Brandenburg-Prussia to the peace table at the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and imposed peace on Denmark-Norway by the Treaty of Fontainebleau and the Peace of Lund, all concluded in 1679.
The successful conclusion of the Treaty of Nijmegen enhanced French influence in Europe, but Louis was still not satisfied. In 1679, he dismissed his foreign minister Simon Arnauld, marquis de Pomponne, because he was seen as having compromised too much with the allies. Louis maintained the strength of his army, but in his next series of territorial claims avoided using military force alone. Rather, he combined it with legal pretexts in his efforts to augment the boundaries of his kingdom. Contemporary treaties were intentionally phrased ambiguously. Louis established the Chambers of Reunion to determine the full extent of his rights and obligations under those treaties.
| Silver coin of Louis XIV, dated 1674 | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Obverse. The Latin inscription is LVDOVICVS XIIII D[EI] GRA[TIA] ("Louis XIV, by the grace of God"). | Reverse. The Latin inscription is FRAN[CIÆ] ET NAVARRÆ REX 1674 ("King of France and of Navarre, 1674"). |
Cities and territories, such as Luxembourg and Casale, were prized for their strategic positions on the frontier and access to important waterways. Louis also sought Strasbourg, an important strategic crossing on the left bank of the Rhine and theretofore a Free Imperial City of the Holy Roman Empire, annexing it and other territories in 1681. Although a part of Alsace, Strasbourg was not part of Habsburg-ruled Alsace and was thus not ceded to France in the Peace of Westphalia.
Following these annexations, Spain declared war, precipitating the War of the Reunions. However, the Spanish were rapidly defeated because the Emperor (distracted by the Great Turkish War) abandoned them, and the Dutch only supported them minimally. By the Truce of Ratisbon, in 1684, Spain was forced to acquiesce in the French occupation of most of the conquered territories, for 20 years.[31]
Louis' policy of the Réunions may have raised France to its greatest size and power during his reign, but it alienated much of Europe. This poor public opinion was compounded by French actions off the Barbary Coast and at Genoa. First, Louis had Algiers and Tripoli, two Barbary pirate strongholds, bombarded to obtain a favourable treaty and the liberation of Christian slaves. Next, in 1684, a punitive mission was launched against Genoa in retaliation for its support for Spain in previous wars. Although the Genoese submitted, and the Doge led an official mission of apology to Versailles, France gained a reputation for brutality and arrogance. European apprehension at growing French might and the realisation of the extent of the dragonnades' effect (discussed below) led many states to abandon their alliance with France.[32] Accordingly, by the late 1680s, France became increasingly isolated in Europe.
Non-European relations and the colonies[edit]
French colonies multiplied in Africa, the Americas, and Asia during Louis' reign, and French explorers made important discoveries in North America. In 1673, Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette discovered the Mississippi River. In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, followed the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico and claimed the vast Mississippi basin in Louis' name, calling it Louisiane. French trading posts were also established in India, at Chandernagore and Pondicherry, and in the Indian Ocean at Île Bourbon. Throughout these regions Louis and Colbert embarked on an extensive program of architecture and urbanism meant to reflect the styles of Versailles and Paris and the 'gloire' of the realm. [33]
Meanwhile, diplomatic relations were initiated with distant countries. In 1669, Suleiman Aga led an Ottoman embassy to revive the old Franco-Ottoman alliance.[34] Then, in 1682, after the reception of the Moroccan embassy of Mohammed Tenim in France, Moulay Ismail, Sultan of Morocco, allowed French consular and commercial establishments in his country.[35] In 1699, Louis once again received a Moroccan ambassador, Abdallah bin Aisha, and in 1715, he received a Persian embassy led by Mohammad Reza Beg.
From farther afield, Siam dispatched an embassy in 1684, reciprocated by the French magnificently the next year under Alexandre, Chevalier de Chaumont. This, in turn, was succeeded by another Siamese embassy under Kosa Pan, superbly received at Versailles in 1686. Louis then sent another embassy in 1687, under Simon de la Loubère, and French influence grew at the Siamese court, which granted Mergui as a naval base to France. However, the death of Narai, King of Ayutthaya, the execution of his pro-French minister Constantine Phaulkon, and the Siege of Bangkok in 1688 ended this era of French influence.[36]
France also attempted to participate actively in Jesuit missions to China. To break the Portuguese dominance there, Louis sent Jesuit missionaries to the court of the Kangxi Emperor in 1685: Jean de Fontaney, Joachim Bouvet, Jean-François Gerbillon, Louis Le Comte, and Claude de Visdelou).[37] Louis also received a Chinese Jesuit, Michael Shen Fu-Tsung, at Versailles in 1684.[38] Furthermore, Louis' librarian and translator Arcadio Huang was Chinese.[39][40]
Height of power[edit]
Centralisation of power[edit]
By the early 1680s, Louis had greatly augmented French influence in the world. Domestically, he successfully increased the influence of the crown and its authority over the church and aristocracy, thus consolidating absolute monarchy in France.
Louis initially supported traditional Gallicanism, which limited papal authority in France, and convened an Assembly of the French clergy in November 1681. Before its dissolution eight months later, the Assembly had accepted the Declaration of the Clergy of France, which increased royal authority at the expense of papal power. Without royal approval, bishops could not leave France, and appeals could not be made to the Pope. Additionally, government officials could not be excommunicated for acts committed in pursuance of their duties. Although the king could not make ecclesiastical law, all papal regulations without royal assent were invalid in France. Unsurprisingly, the pope repudiated the Declaration.[3]
By attaching nobles to his court at Versailles, Louis achieved increased control over the French aristocracy. Apartments were built to house those willing to pay court to the king.[41] However, the pensions and privileges necessary to live in a style appropriate to their rank were only possible by waiting constantly on Louis.[42] For this purpose, an elaborate court ritual was created wherein the king became the centre of attention and was observed throughout the day by the public. With his excellent memory, Louis could then see who attended him at court and who was absent, facilitating the subsequent distribution of favours and positions. Another tool Louis used to control his nobility was censorship, which often involved the opening of letters to discern their author's opinion of the government and king.[41] Moreover, by entertaining, impressing, and domesticating them with extravagant luxury and other distractions, Louis not only cultivated public opinion of him, he also ensured the aristocracy remained under his scrutiny.
Louis' extravagance at Versailles extended far beyond the scope of elaborate court rituals. In an excerpt from Diderot's Encyclopédie, Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton recounts a story in which Louis took delivery of an African elephant as a gift.
In 1668 the king of Portugal sent an elephant from the kingdom of Congo to the king of France. It was seventeen years old and measured six and a half feet from the ground to the top of its back. The elephant lived in the menagerie at Versailles for thirteen years and only grew a further foot, no doubt because the change in climate and food had stunted its growth; so it measured just seven and a half feet when the gentlemen of the Royal Academy of Sciences carried out their description of it.[43]
This, along with the prohibition of private armies, prevented them from passing time on their own estates and in their regional power bases, from which they historically waged local wars and plotted resistance to royal authority.[44] Louis thus compelled and seduced the old military aristocracy (the "nobility of the sword") into becoming his ceremonial courtiers, further weakening their power. In their place, Louis raised commoners or the more recently ennobled bureaucratic aristocracy (the "nobility of the robe"). He judged that royal authority thrived more surely by filling high executive and administrative positions with these men because they could be more easily dismissed than nobles of ancient lineage, with entrenched influence. It is believed that Louis' policies were rooted in his experiences during the Frondewhen men of high birth readily took up the rebel cause against their king, who was actually the kinsman of some. This victory of Louis' over the nobility may have then in fact ensured the end of major civil wars in France until the French Revolution about a century later.
France as the pivot of warfare[edit]
In 1648 France was the leading European power, and most of the wars pivoted around its aggressiveness. Only poverty-stricken Russia exceeded it in population, and no one could match its wealth, central location, and very strong professional army. It had largely avoided the devastation of the Thirty Years War. Its weaknesses included an inefficient financial system that was hard-pressed to pay for all the military adventures, and the tendency of most other powers to gang up against it.
During the very long reign of King Louis XIV (1643 – 1715), France fought three major wars: the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession. There were also two lesser conflicts: the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions.[45] The wars were very expensive but they defined Louis XIV's foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled "by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique," Louis sensed that warfare was the ideal way to enhance his glory. In peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military.[4] By 1695, France retained much of its dominance, but had lost control of the seas to the combination of England and Holland. What's more, most countries, both Protestant and Catholic, were in alliance against it. Vauban, France's leading military strategist, warned the king in 1689 that a hostile "Alliance" was too powerful at sea. He recommended the best way for France to fight back was to license French merchants ships to privateer and seize enemy merchant ships, while avoiding its navies:
- France has its declared enemies Germany and all the states that it embraces; Spain with all its dependencies in Europe, Asia, Africa and America; the Duke of Savoy [in Italy]England, Scotland, Ireland, and all their colonies in the East and West Indies; and Holland with all its possessions in the four corners of the world where it has great establishments. France has ... undeclared enemies, indirectly hostile, hostile, and envious of its greatness, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Portugal, Venice, Genoa, and part of the Swiss Confederation, all of which states secretly aid France's enemies by the troops that they hire to them, the money they lend them and by protecting and covering their trade.[46]
Vauban was pessimistic about France's so-called friends and allies:
- For lukewarm, useless, or impotent friends, France has the Pope, who is indifferent; the King of England [James II] expelled from his country; the grand Duke of Tuscany; the Dukes of Mantua, Mokena, and Parma [all in Italy]; and the other faction of the Swiss. Some of these are sunk in the softness that comes of years of peace, the others are cool in their affections....The English and Dutch are the main pillars of the Alliance; they support it by making war against us in concert with the other powers, and they keep it going by means of the money that they pay every year to... Allies.... We must therefore fall back on privateering as the method of conducting war which is most feasible, simple, cheap, and safe, and which will cost least to the state, the more so since any losses will not be felt by the King, who risks virtually nothing....It will enrich the country, train many good officers for the King, and in a short time force his enemies to sue for peace.[47]
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes[edit]
It has traditionally been suggested that the devout Madame de Maintenon pushed Louis to persecute Protestants and revoke the 1598 Edict of Nantes, which awarded Huguenots political and religious freedom, but her influence in the matter is now being questioned.[48] Louis saw the persistence of Protestantism as a disgraceful reminder of royal powerlessness. After all, the Edict was the pragmatic concession of his grandfather Henry IV to end the longstanding French Wars of Religion. An additional factor in Louis' thinking was the prevailing contemporary European principle to assure socio-political stability, cuius regio, eius religio ("whose realm, his religion"), the idea that the religion of the ruler should be the religion of the realm (as originally confirmed in central Europe in the Peace of Augsburg of 1555).[49]
Responding to petitions, Louis initially excluded Protestants from office, constrained the meeting of synods, closed churches outside of Edict-stipulated areas, banned Protestant outdoor preachers, and prohibited domestic Protestant migration. He also disallowed Protestant-Catholic intermarriages to which third parties objected, encouraged missions to the Protestants, and rewarded converts to Catholicism.[50] This discrimination did not encounter much Protestant resistance, and a steady conversion of Protestants occurred, especially among the noble elites.
In 1681, Louis dramatically increased his persecution of Protestants. The principle of cuius regio, eius religio generally had also meant that subjects who refused to convert could emigrate, but Louis banned emigration and effectively insisted that all Protestants must be converted. Secondly, following the proposal of René de Marillac and the Marquis of Louvois, he began quartering dragoons in Protestant homes. Although this was within his legal rights, the dragonnades inflicted severe financial strain on Protestants and atrocious abuse. Between 300,000 and 400,000 Huguenots converted, as this entailed financial rewards and exemption from the dragonnades.[51]
On 15 October 1685, Louis issued the Edict of Fontainebleau, which cited the redundancy of privileges for Protestants given their scarcity after the extensive conversions. The Edict of Fontainebleau revoked the Edict of Nantes and repealed all the privileges that arose therefrom.[3] By his edict, Louis no longer tolerated the existence of Protestant groups, pastors, or churches in France. No further churches were to be constructed, and those already existing were to be demolished. Pastors could choose either exile or a secular life. Those Protestants who had resisted conversion were now to be baptised forcibly into the established church.[52]
Writers have debated Louis' reasons for issuing the Edict of Fontainebleau. He may have been seeking to placate Pope Innocent XI, with whom relations were tense and whose aid was necessary to determine the outcome of a succession crisis in the Electorate of Cologne. He may also have acted to upstage Emperor Leopold I and regain international prestige after the latter defeated the Turks without Louis' help. Otherwise, he may simply have desired to end the remaining divisions in French society dating to the Wars of Religion by fulfilling his coronation oath to eradicate heresy.[53][54]
Many historians have condemned the Edict of Fontainebleau as gravely harmful to France.[55] In support, they cite the emigration of about 200,000 highly skilled Huguenots (roughly one-fourth of the Protestant population, or 1% of the French population) who defied royal decrees and fled France for various Protestant states, weakening the French economy and enriching that of Protestant states.
On the other hand, there are historians who view this as an exaggeration. They argue that most of France's preeminent Protestant businessmen and industrialists converted to Catholicism and remained.[56]
What is certain is that reaction to the Edict was mixed. Even while French Catholic leaders exulted, Pope Innocent XI still argued with Louis over Gallicanism and criticised the use of violence. Protestants across Europe were horrified at the treatment of their co-religionists, but most Catholics in France applauded the move. Nonetheless, it is indisputable that Louis' public image in most of Europe, especially in Protestant regions, was dealt a severe blow.
In the end, however, despite renewed tensions with the Camisards of south-central France at the end of his reign, Louis may have helped ensure that his successor would experience fewer instances of the religion-based disturbances that had plagued his forebears. French society would sufficiently change by the time of his descendant, Louis XVI, to welcome tolerance in the form of the 1787 Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance. This restored to non-Catholics their civil rights and the freedom to worship openly.[57] With the advent of the French Revolution in 1789, Protestants were granted equal rights with their Roman Catholic counterparts.
League of Augsburg[edit]
Causes and conduct of the war[edit]
The War of the League of Augsburg, which lasted from 1688 to 1697, initiated a period of decline in Louis' political and diplomatic fortunes. The conflict arose from two events in the Rhineland. First, in 1685, the Elector Palatine Charles II died. All that remained of his immediate family was Louis' sister-in-law, Elizabeth Charlotte. German law ostensibly barred her from succeeding to her brother's lands and electoral dignity, but it was unclear enough for arguments in favour of Elizabeth Charlotte to have a chance of success. Conversely, the princess was clearly entitled to a division of the family's personal property. Louis pressed her claims to land and chattels, hoping the latter, at least, would be given to her.[58] Then, in 1688, Maximilian Henry of Bavaria, Archbishop of Cologne, an ally of France, died. The archbishopric had traditionally been held by the Wittelsbachs of Bavaria. However, the Bavarian claimant to replace Maximilian Henry, Prince Joseph Clemens of Bavaria, was at that time not more than 17 years old and not even ordained. Louis sought instead to install his own candidate, William Egon of Fürstenberg, to ensure the key Rhenish state remained an ally.[59]
In light of his foreign and domestic policies during the early 1680s, which were perceived as aggressive, Louis' actions, fostered by the succession crises of the late 1680s, created concern and alarm in much of Europe. This led to the formation of the 1686 League of Augsburg by the Holy Roman Emperor, Spain, Sweden, Saxony, and Bavaria. Their stated intention was to return France to at least the borders agreed to in the Treaty of Nijmegen.[60] Emperor Leopold I's persistent refusal to convert the Truce of Ratisbon into a permanent treaty fed Louis' fears that the Emperor would turn on France and attack the Reunions after settling his affairs in the Balkans.[61]
Another event that Louis found threatening was the Glorious Revolution of 1688, in England. Although King James II was Catholic, his two Anglican daughters, Mary and Anne, ensured the English people a Protestant succession. However, when James II's son James was born, he took precedence in the succession over his elder sisters. This seemed to herald an era of Catholic monarchs in England. Protestant lords called on the Dutch Prince William III of Orange, grandson of Charles I of England, to come to their aid. He sailed for England with troops despite Louis' warning that France would regard it as a provocation. Witnessing numerous desertions and defections, even among those closest to him, James II fled England. Parliament declared the throne vacant, and offered it to James's daughter Mary II and his son-in-law and nephew William. Vehemently anti-French, William (now William III of England) pushed his new kingdoms into war, thus transforming the League of Augsburg into the Grand Alliance. Before this happened, Louis expected William's expedition to England to absorb his energies and those of his allies, so he dispatched troops to the Rhineland after the expiry of his ultimatum to the German princes requiring confirmation of the Truce of Ratisbon and acceptance of his demands about the succession crises. This military manoeuvre was also intended to protect his eastern provinces from Imperial invasion by depriving the enemy army of sustenance, thus explaining the pre-emptive scorched earth policy pursued in much of southwestern Germany (the "Devastation of the Palatinate").[62]
French armies were generally victorious throughout the war because of Imperial commitments in the Balkans, French logistical superiority, and the quality of French generals such as Condé's famous pupil, François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, duc de Luxembourg. His triumphs at the Battles of Fleurus in 1690, Steenkerque in 1692, and Landen in 1693 preserved northern France from invasion.[63]
Although an attempt to restore James II failed at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, France accumulated a string of victories from Flanders in the north, Germany in the east, and Italy and Spain in the south, to the high seas and the colonies. Louis personally supervised the captures of Mons in 1691 and Namur in 1692. Luxembourg gave France the defensive line of the Sambre by capturing Charleroi in 1693. France also overran most of the Duchy of Savoy after the battles of Marsaglia and Staffarde in 1693. While naval stalemate ensued after the French victory at the Battle of Beachy Head in 1690 and the Allied victory at Barfleur-La Hougue in 1692, the Battle of Torroella in 1694 exposed Catalonia to French invasion, culminating in the capture of Barcelona. Although the Dutch captured Pondichéry in 1693, a French raid on the Spanish treasure port of Cartagena in 1697 yielded a fortune of 10,000,000 livres.
In July 1695, the city of Namur, occupied for three years by the French, was besieged by an allied army led by William III. Louis XIV ordered the surprise destruction of a Flemish city to divert the attention of these troops. This led to the bombardment of Brussels, in which 4-5000 buildings were destroyed, including the entire city-center. The strategy failed, as Namur fell three weeks later, but harmed Louis XIV's reputation: a century later, Napoleon deemed the bombardment "as barbarous as it was useless."[64]
Peace was broached by Sweden in 1690. By 1692, both sides evidently wanted peace, and secret bilateral talks began, but to no avail.[65] Louis tried to break up the alliance against him by dealing with individual opponents, but this did not achieve its aim until 1696, when the Savoyards agreed to the Treaty of Turin and switched sides. Thereafter, members of the League of Augsburg rushed to the peace table, and negotiations for a general peace began in earnest, culminating in the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697.[66]
Treaty of Ryswick[edit]
The Treaty of Ryswick ended the War of the League of Augsburg and disbanded the Grand Alliance. By manipulating their rivalries and suspicions, Louis divided his enemies and broke their power.
The treaty yielded many benefits for France. Louis secured permanent French sovereignty over all of Alsace, including Strasbourg, and established the Rhine as the Franco-German border (which persists to this day). Pondichéry and Acadia were returned to France, and Louis' de facto possession of Saint-Domingue was recognised as lawful. However, he returned Catalonia and most of the Reunions.
French military superiority might have allowed him to press for more advantageous terms. Thus, his generosity to Spain with regard to Catalonia has been read as a concession to foster pro-French sentiment and may ultimately have induced King Charles II to name Louis' grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou, as heir to the throne of Spain.[67] In exchange for financial compensation, France renounced its interests in the Electorate of Cologne and the Palatinate. Lorraine, which had been occupied by the French since 1670, was returned to its rightful Duke Leopold, albeit with a right of way to the French military. William and Mary were recognised as joint sovereigns of the British Isles, and Louis withdrew support for James II. The Dutch were given the right to garrison forts in the Spanish Netherlands that acted as a protective barrier against possible French aggression. Though in some respects, the Treaty of Ryswick may appear a diplomatic defeat for Louis since he failed to place client rulers in control of the Palatinate or the Electorate of Cologne, he did in fact fulfill many of the aims laid down in his 1688 ultimatum.[68] In any case, peace in 1697 was desirable to Louis, since France was exhausted from the costs of the war.
War of the Spanish Succession[edit]
Causes and build-up to the war[edit]
By the time of the Treaty of Ryswick, the Spanish succession had been a source of concern to European leaders for well over forty years. King Charles II ruled a vast empire comprising Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan, the Spanish Netherlands, and numerous Spanish colonies. He produced no children, however, and consequently had no direct heirs.
The principal claimants to the throne of Spain belonged to the ruling families of France and Austria. The French claim derived from Louis XIV's mother Anne of Austria (the older sister of Philip IV of Spain) and his wife Maria Theresa (Philip IV's eldest daughter). Based on the laws of primogeniture, France had the better claim as it originated from the eldest daughters in two generations. However, their renunciation of succession rights complicated matters. In the case of Maria Theresa, nonetheless, the renunciation was considered null and void owing to Spain's breach of her marriage contract with Louis. In contrast, no renunciations tainted the claims of the Emperor Leopold I's son Charles, Archduke of Austria, who was a grandson of Philip III's youngest daughter Maria Anna. The English and Dutch feared that a French or Austrian-born Spanish king would threaten the balance of power and thus preferred the Bavarian Prince Joseph Ferdinand, a grandson of Leopold I through his first wife Margaret Theresa of Spain (the younger daughter of Philip IV).
In an attempt to avoid war, Louis signed the Treaty of the Hague with William III of England in 1698. This agreement divided Spain's Italian territories between Louis's son le Grand Dauphin and the Archduke Charles, with the rest of the empire awarded to Joseph Ferdinand. William III consented to permitting the Dauphin's new territories to become part of France when the latter succeeded to his father's throne.[69] The signatories, however, omitted to consult the ruler of these lands, and Charles II was passionately opposed to the dismemberment of his empire. In 1699, he re-confirmed his 1693 will that named Joseph Ferdinand as his sole successor.[70]
Six months later, Joseph Ferdinand died. Therefore, in 1700, Louis and William III concluded a fresh partitioning agreement, the Treaty of London. This allocated Spain, the Low Countries, and the Spanish colonies to the Archduke. The Dauphin would receive all of Spain's Italian territories. Charles II acknowledged that his empire could only remain undivided by bequeathing it entirely to a Frenchman or an Austrian. Under pressure from his German wife, Maria Anna of Neuburg, Charles II named the Archduke Charles as his sole heir.
Acceptance of the will of Charles II and consequences[edit]
On his deathbed in 1700, Charles II unexpectedly changed his will. The clear demonstration of French military superiority for many decades before this time, the pro-French faction at the court of Spain, and even Pope Innocent XII convinced him that France was more likely to preserve his empire intact. He thus offered the entire empire to the Dauphin's second son Philip, Duke of Anjou, provided it remained undivided. Anjou was not in the direct line of French succession, thus his accession would not cause a Franco-Spanish union. If Anjou refused, the throne would be offered to his younger brother Charles, Duke of Berry. If the Duke of Berry declined it, it would go to the Archduke Charles, then to the distantly related House of Savoy if Charles declined it.[72]
Louis was confronted with a difficult choice. He might agree to a partition of the Spanish possessions and avoid a general war, or accept Charles II's will and alienate much of Europe. Initially, Louis may have been inclined to abide by the partition treaties. However, the Dauphin's insistence persuaded Louis otherwise.[73] Moreover, Louis's foreign minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Torcy, pointed out that war with the Emperor would almost certainly ensue whether Louis accepted the partition treaties or Charles II's will. He emphasised that, should it come to war, William III was unlikely to stand by France since he "made a treaty to avoid war and did not intend to go to war to implement the treaty".[70] Indeed, in the event of a war, it might be preferable to be already in control of the disputed lands. Eventually, therefore, Louis decided to accept Charles II's will. Philip, Duke of Anjou, thus became Philip V, King of Spain.
Most European rulers accepted Philip as king, though some only reluctantly. Depending on one's views of the war as inevitable or not, Louis acted reasonably or arrogantly.[74] He confirmed that Philip V retained his French rights despite his new Spanish position. Admittedly, he may only have been hypothesising a theoretical eventuality and not attempting a Franco-Spanish union. But his actions were certainly not read as being disinterested. Moreover, Louis sent troops to the Spanish Netherlands to evict Dutch garrisons and secure Dutch recognition of Philip V. In 1701, Philip transferred the asiento (the right to supply slaves to Spanish colonies) to France, alienating English traders. As tensions mounted, Louis decided to acknowledge James Stuart, the son of James II, as king of England on the latter's death, infuriating William III. These actions enraged Britain and the Dutch Republic.[75] With the Holy Roman Emperor and the petty German states, they formed another Grand Alliance and declared war on France in 1702. French diplomacy, however, secured Bavaria, Portugal, and Savoy as Franco-Spanish allies.[76]
Commencement of fighting[edit]
Even before war was officially declared, hostilities began with Imperial aggression in Italy. When finally declared, the War of the Spanish Succession would last almost until Louis's death, at great cost to him and the kingdom of France.
The war began with French successes, however the joint talents of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, and Eugene of Savoy checked these victories and broke the myth of French invincibility. The duo allowed the Palatinate and Austria to occupy Bavaria after their victory at the Battle of Blenheim. Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, had to flee to the Spanish Netherlands. The impact of this victory won the support of Portugal and Savoy. Later, the Battle of Ramillies delivered the Low Countries up to the Allies, and the Battle of Turin forced Louis to evacuate Italy, leaving it open to Allied forces. Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy met again at the Battle of Oudenarde, which enabled them to mount an invasion of France.
France established contact with Francis II Rákóczi and promised support if he took up the cause of Hungarian independence.
Defeats, famine, and mounting debt greatly weakened France. Between 1693 and 1710, over two million people died in two famines, made worse as foraging armies seized food supplies from the villages.[77][78] In his desperation, Louis XIV even ordered a disastrous invasion of the English island of Guernsey in the autumn of 1704 with the aim of raiding their successful harvest. By the winter of 1708–1709, Louis was willing to accept peace at nearly any cost. He agreed that the entire Spanish empire should be surrendered to the Archduke Charles, and he also consented to return to the frontiers of the Peace of Westphalia, giving up all the territories he had acquired over sixty years of his reign. He could not speak for his grandson, however, and could not promise that Philip V would accept these terms. Thus, the Allies demanded that Louis single-handedly attack his own grandson to force these terms on him. If he could not achieve this within the year, the war would resume. Louis could not accept these terms.[79]
Turning point[edit]
The final phases of the War of the Spanish Succession demonstrated that the Allies could not maintain the Archduke Charles in Spain just as surely as France could not retain the entire Spanish inheritance for King Philip V. The Allies were definitively expelled from central Spain by the Franco-Spanish victories at the Battles of Villaviciosa and Brihuega in 1710. French forces elsewhere remained obdurate despite their defeats. The Allies suffered a Pyrrhic victory at the Battle of Malplaquet with 21,000 casualties, twice that of the French.[80] Eventually, France recovered its military pride with the decisive victory at Denain in 1712.
French military successes near the end of the war took place against the background of a changed political situation in Austria. In 1705, the Emperor Leopold I died. His elder son and successor, Joseph I, followed him in 1711. His heir was none other than the Archduke Charles, who secured control of all of his brother's Austrian land holdings. If the Spanish empire then fell to him, it would have resurrected a domain as vast as that of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in the sixteenth century. To the maritime powers of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, this would have been as undesirable as a Franco-Spanish union.[81]
Conclusion of peace[edit]
As a result of the fresh British perspective on the European balance of power, Anglo-French talks began that culminated in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht between Louis, Philip V of Spain, Anne, Queen of Great Britain, and the Dutch Republic. In 1714, after losing Landau and Freiburg, the Holy Roman Emperor also made peace with France in the Treaties of Rastatt and Baden.
In the general settlement, Philip V retained Spain and its colonies, whereas Austria received the Spanish Netherlands and divided Spanish Italy with Savoy. Britain kept Gibraltar and Menorca. Louis agreed to withdraw his support for James Stuart, son of James II and pretender to the throne of Great Britain, and ceded Newfoundland, Rupert's Land, and Acadia in the Americas to Anne. Britain gained most from the Treaty of Utrecht, but the final terms were much more favourable to France than what was being discussed in peace negotiations in 1709 and 1710.[citation needed] France retained Île-Saint-Jean and Île Royale, and Louis did acquire a few minor European territories, such as the Principality of Orange and the Ubaye Valley, which covered transalpine passes into Italy. Thanks to Louis, his allies the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne were restored to their pre-war status and returned their lands.[82]
Personal life[edit]
Marriages and children[edit]
Louis and his wife Maria Theresa of Spain had six children from the marriage contracted for them in 1660. However, only one child, the eldest, survived to adulthood: Louis, le Grand Dauphinknown as Monseigneur. Maria Theresa died in 1683, whereupon Louis remarked that she had never caused him unease on any other occasion.
Despite evidence of affection early on in their marriage, Louis was never faithful to Maria Theresa. He took a series of mistresses, both official and unofficial. Among the better documented are Louise de La Vallière (with whom he had 5 children; 1661–67), Bonne de Pons d'Heudicourt (1665), Catherine Charlotte de Gramont (1665), Françoise-Athénaïs, Marquise de Montespan (with whom he had 7 children; 1667–80), Anne de Rohan-Chabot (1669–75), Claude de Vin des Œillets (1 child born in 1676), Isabelle de Ludres (1675–78), and Marie Angélique de Scorailles (1679–81), who died at age 19 in childbirth. Through these liaisons, he produced numerous illegitimate children, most of whom he married to members of cadet branches of the royal family.
Louis proved relatively more faithful to his second wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon. He first met her through her work caring for his children by Madame de Montespan, noting the care she gave to his favorite, Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine. The king was, at first, put off by her strict religious practice, but he warmed to her through her care for his children.
When he legitimized his children by Madame de Montespan on 20 December 1673, Françoise d'Aubigné became the royal governess at Saint-Germain. As governess, she was one of very few people permitted to speak to him as an equal, without limits. It is believed that they were married secretly at Versailles on or around 10 October 1683[84] or January 1684. This marriage, though never announced or publicly discussed, was an open secret and lasted until his death.[86]
Piety and religion[edit]
Louis was a pious and devout king who saw himself as the head and protector of the Gallican Church. Louis made his devotions daily regardless of where he was, following the liturgical calendar regularly.[87] Under the influence of his very religious second wife, he became much stronger in the practice of his Catholic faith. This included the banning of opera and comedy performances during Lent.
Towards the middle and the end of his reign, the centre for the King's religious observances was usually the Chapelle Royale at Versailles. Ostentation was a distinguishing feature of daily Mass, annual celebrations, such as those of Holy Week, and special ceremonies.[89] Louis established the Paris Foreign Missions Society, but his informal alliance with the Ottoman Empire was criticised for undermining Christendom.[90]
Patronage of the arts[edit]
Louis generously supported the royal court of France and those who worked under him. He brought the Académie Française under his patronage and became its "Protector". He allowed Classical French literature to flourish by protecting such writers as Molière, Racine, and La Fontaine, whose works remain greatly influential to this day. Louis also patronised the visual arts by funding and commissioning various artists, such as Charles Le Brun, Pierre Mignard, Antoine Coysevox, and Hyacinthe Rigaud, whose works became famous throughout Europe. In music, composers and musicians such as Jean-Baptiste Lully, Jacques Champion de Chambonnières, and François Couperin thrived. In 1661, Louis founded the Académie Royale de Danse, and in 1669, the Académie d'Opéra, important driving events in the evolution of ballet. The King also attracted, supported and patronized such artists as André Charles Boulle who revolutionised marquetry with his art of inlay, today known as "Boulle Work".
Over the course of four building campaigns, Louis converted a hunting lodge built by Louis XIII into the spectacular Palace of Versailles. With the exception of the current Royal Chapel (built near the end of Louis' reign), the palace achieved much of its current appearance after the third building campaign, which was followed by an official move of the royal court to Versailles on 6 May 1682. Versailles became a dazzling, awe-inspiring setting for state affairs and the reception of foreign dignitaries. At Versailles, the king alone commanded attention.
Several reasons have been suggested for the creation of the extravagant and stately palace, as well as the relocation of the monarchy's seat. For example, the memoirist Saint-Simon speculated that Louis viewed Versailles as an isolated power center where treasonous cabals could be more readily discovered and foiled.[42] Alternatively, there has been speculation that the revolt of the Fronde caused Louis to hate Paris, which he abandoned for a country retreat. However, his sponsorship of many public works in Paris, such as the establishment of a police force and of street-lighting,[91] lend little credence to this theory. As a further example of his continued care for the capital, Louis constructed the Hôtel des Invalidesa military complex and home to this day for officers and soldiers rendered infirm either by injury or old age. While pharmacology was still quite rudimentary in his day, the Invalides pioneered new treatments and set new standards for hospice treatment. The conclusion of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1668, also induced Louis to demolish the northern walls of Paris in 1670 and replace them with wide tree-lined boulevards.[92]
Louis also renovated and improved the Louvre and other royal residences. Gian Lorenzo Bernini was originally to plan additions to the Louvre; however, his plans would have meant the destruction of much of the existing structure, replacing it with an Italian summer villa in the centre of Paris. Bernini's plans were eventually shelved in favour of Perrault's elegant colonnade. With the relocation of the court to Versailles, the Louvre was given over to the arts and the public.[93]
During his visit from Rome, Bernini also executed a renowned portrait bust of the king.
Image and depiction[edit]
Few rulers in world history have commemorated themselves in as grand a manner as Louis.[94] Louis used court ritual and the arts to validate and augment his control over France. With his support, Colbert established from the beginning of Louis' personal reign a centralised and institutionalised system for creating and perpetuating the royal image. The King was thus portrayed largely in majesty or at war, notably against Spain. This portrayal of the monarch was to be found in numerous media of artistic expression, such as painting, sculpture, theatre, dance, music, and the almanacs that diffused royal propaganda to the population at large.
Evolution of royal portraiture[edit]
Over his lifetime, Louis commissioned numerous works of art to portray himself, among them over 300 formal portraits. The earliest portrayals of Louis already followed the pictorial conventions of the day in depicting the child king as the majestically royal incarnation of France. This idealisation of the monarch continued in later works, which avoided depictions of the effect of the smallpox that Louis contracted in 1647. In the 1660s, Louis began to be shown as a Roman emperor, the god Apollo, or Alexander the Great, as can be seen in many works of Charles Le Brun, such as sculpture, paintings, and the decor of major monuments.
The depiction of the king in this manner focused on allegorical or mythological attributes, instead of attempting to produce a true likeness. As Louis aged, so too did the manner in which he was depicted. Nonetheless, there was still a disparity between realistic representation and the demands of royal propaganda. There is no better illustration of this than in Hyacinthe Rigaud's frequently-reproduced Portrait of Louis XIV of 1701in which a 63-year-old Louis appears to stand on a set of unnaturally young legs.[95]
Rigaud's portrait exemplified the height of royal portraiture during Louis' reign. Although Rigaud crafted a credible likeness of Louis, the portrait was neither meant as an exercise in realism nor to explore Louis' personal character. Certainly, Rigaud was concerned with detail and depicted the king's costume with great precision, down to his shoe buckle.[96]
However, Rigaud's intention was to glorify the monarchy. Rigaud's original, now housed in the Louvre, was originally meant as a gift to Louis' grandson, Philip V of Spain. However, Louis was so pleased with the work that he kept the original and commissioned a copy to be sent to his grandson. That became the first of many copies, both in full and half-length formats, to be made by Rigaud, often with the help of his assistants. The portrait also became a model for French royal and imperial portraiture down to the time of Charles X over a century later. In his work, Rigaud proclaims Louis' exalted royal status through his elegant stance and haughty expression, the royal regalia and throne, rich ceremonial fleur-de-lys robes, as well as the upright column in the background, which, together with the draperies, serves to frame this image of majesty.
Other works of art[edit]
In addition to portraits, Louis commissioned at least 20 statues of himself in the 1680s, to stand in Paris and provincial towns as physical manifestations of his rule. He also commissioned "war artists" to follow him on campaigns to document his military triumphs. To remind the people of these triumphs, Louis erected permanent triumphal arches in Paris and the provinces for the first time since the decline of the Roman Empire.
Louis' reign marked the birth and infancy of the art of medallions. Sixteenth-century rulers had often issued medals in small numbers to commemorate the major events of their reigns. Louis, however, struck more than 300 to celebrate the story of the king in bronze, that were enshrined in thousands of households throughout France.
He also used tapestries as a medium of exalting the monarchy. Tapestries could be allegorical, depicting the elements or seasons, or realist, portraying royal residences or historical events. They were among the most significant means to spread royal propaganda prior to the construction of the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.[97]
Ballet[edit]
Louis loved ballet and frequently danced in court ballets during the early half of his reign. In general, Louis was an eager dancer who performed 80 roles in 40 major ballets. This approaches the career of a professional ballet dancer.[98]
His choices were strategic and varied. He danced four parts in three of Molière's comédies-ballets, which are plays accompanied by music and dance. Louis played an Egyptian in Le Mariage forcé in 1664, a Moorish gentleman in Le Sicilien in 1667, and both Neptune and Apollo in Les Amants magnifiques in 1670.
He sometimes danced leading roles which were suitably royal or godlike (such as Neptune, Apollo, or the Sun).[98] At other times, he would adopt mundane roles before appearing at the end in the lead role. It is considered that, at all times, he provided his roles with sufficient majesty and drew the limelight with his flair for dancing.[98] For Louis, ballet may not have merely been a tool for manipulation in his propaganda machinery. The sheer number of performances he gave as well as the diversity of roles he played may serve to indicate a deeper understanding and interest in the art form.[citation needed]
Unofficial image[edit]
Besides the official depiction and image of Louis, his subjects also followed a non-official discourse consisting mainly of clandestine publications, popular songs, and rumors that provided an alternative interpretation of Louis and his government. They often focused on the miseries arising from poor government, but also carried the hope for a better future when Louis escaped the malignant influence of his ministers and mistresses, and took the government into his own hands. On the other hand, petitions addressed either directly to Louis or to his ministers exploited the traditional imagery and language of monarchy. These varying interpretations of Louis abounded in self-contradictions that reflected the people's amalgamation of their everyday experiences with the idea of monarchy.[99]
In fiction[edit]
Literature[edit]
Alexandre Dumas portrayed Louis in his two sequels to The Three Musketeers: first as a child in Twenty Years Afterthen as a young man in The Vicomte de Bragelonnein which he is a central character. The final part of the latter novel recounts the legend that a mysterious prisoner in an iron mask was actually Louis' twin brother and has spawned numerous film adaptations generally titled The Man in the Iron Mask.
In 1910, the American historical novelist Charles Major wrote "The Little King: A Story of the Childhood of King Louis XIV".
Louis is a major character in the 1959 historical novel "Angélique et le Roy" ("Angélique and the King"), part of the Angelique Series. The protagonist, a strong-willed lady at Versailles, rejects the King's advances and refuses to become his mistress. A later book, the 1961 "Angélique se révolte" ("Angélique in Revolt"), details the dire consequences of her defying this powerful monarch.
A character based on Louis plays an important role in The Age of Unreasona series of four alternate history novels written by American science fiction and fantasy author Gregory Keyes.
Louis features significantly in Neal Stephenson's Baroque Cycle, specifically The Confusionthe greater part of which takes place at Versailles.
In the 39 Clues series universe, it has been noted that Louis was part of the Cahill branch, Tomas.
He is called the son of Apollo in Rick Riordan's Trials of Apollo series.
Films[edit]
The film, The Taking of Power by Louis XIV (1966), directed by Roberto Rossellini, shows Louis's rise to power after the death of Cardinal Mazarin.
The film, Le Roi Danse (2000; translated: The King Dances), directed by Gérard Corbiau, reveals Louis through the eyes of
Jean-Baptiste Lully, his court musician. Julian Sands portrayed Louis in Roland Jaffe's Vatel (2000).
Alan Rickman directed, co-wrote, and stars as Louis XIV in the film, A Little Chaoswhich centers on construction in the gardens of Versaille, at the time immediately before and after the death of Queen Maria Theresa.
The 2016 film The Death of Louis XIVdirected by Albert Serra, is set during the last two weeks of Louis XIV's life before dying of gangrene, with the monarch played by Jean-Pierre Léaud.
Television[edit]
The 15-year-old Louis XIV, as played by the Irish actor Robert Sheehan, is a major character of the short-lived historical fantasy series Young Blades from January to June 2005.
George Blagden portrays Louis XIV in the Canal+ series Versailles which aired for three seasons from 2015.
Health and death[edit]
Despite the image of a healthy and virile king that Louis sought to project, evidence exists to suggest that his health was not that good. He had many ailments: for example, symptoms of diabetes, as confirmed in reports of suppurating periostitis in 1678, dental abscesses in 1696, along with recurring boils, fainting spells, gout, dizziness, hot flushes, and headaches.
From 1647 to 1711, the three chief physicians to the king (Antoine Vallot, Antoine d'Aquin, and Guy-Crescent Fagon) recorded all of his health problems in the Journal de Santé du Roi (Journal of the King's Health), a daily report of his health. On 18 November 1686, Louis underwent a painful operation for an anal fistula that was performed by the surgeon Charles Felix de Tassy, who prepared a specially shaped curved scalpel for the occasion. The wound took more than two months to heal.[100]
Louis died of gangrene at Versailles on 1 September 1715, four days before his 77th birthday, after 72 years on the throne. Enduring much pain in his last days, he finally "yielded up his soul without any effort, like a candle going out", while reciting the psalm Domine, ad adjuvandum me festina (O Lord, make haste to help me).[101] His body was laid to rest in Saint-Denis Basilica outside Paris. It remained there undisturbed for about 80 years, until revolutionaries exhumed and destroyed all of the remains found in the Basilica.[102]
Succession[edit]
Louis outlived most of his immediate legitimate family. His last surviving son, the Dauphin, died in 1711. Barely a year later, the Duke of Burgundy, the eldest of the Dauphin's three sons and then heir to Louis, followed his father. Burgundy's elder son, Louis, Duke of Brittany, joined them a few weeks later. Thus, on his deathbed, Louis' heir was his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis, Duke of Anjou, Burgundy's younger son.
Louis foresaw an underaged heir and sought to restrict the power of his nephew Philip II, Duke of Orléans, who, as his closest surviving legitimate relative in France, would likely become regent to the prospective Louis XV. Accordingly, the king created a regency council as Louis XIII had in anticipation of Louis IV's own minority, with some power vested in his illegitimate son Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, Duke of Maine.[103] Orléans, however, had Louis' will annulled by the Parlement of Paris after his death and made himself sole regent. He stripped Maine and his brother, Louis-Alexandre, Count of Toulouse, of the rank of Prince of the Blood, which Louis had granted them, and significantly reduced Maine's power and privileges.[104]
Line of succession in 1715[edit]
Line of succession to the French throne upon the death of Louis XIV in 1715. Louis XIV's only surviving legitimate grandson, Philip V, was not included in the line of succession due to having renounced the French throne after the war of the Spanish succession, which lasted for 13 years after the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700.[105]
Reputation[edit]
According to Philippe de Dangeau's JournalLouis on his deathbed advised his heir with these words:
Do not follow the bad example which I have set you; I have often undertaken war too lightly and have sustained it for vanity. Do not imitate me, but be a peaceful prince, and may you apply yourself principally to the alleviation of the burdens of your subjects.[106]
Some historians point out that it was a customary demonstration of piety in those days to exaggerate one's sins. Thus they do not place much emphasis on Louis' deathbed declarations in assessing his accomplishments. Rather, they focus on military and diplomatic successes, such as how he placed a French prince on the Spanish throne. This, they contend, ended the threat of an aggressive Spain that historically interfered in domestic French politics. These historians also emphasise the effect of Louis' wars in expanding France's boundaries and creating more defensible frontiers that preserved France from invasion until the Revolution.[106]
Arguably, Louis also applied himself indirectly to "the alleviation of the burdens of [his] subjects." For example, he patronised the arts, encouraged industry, fostered trade and commerce, and sponsored the founding of an overseas empire. Moreover, the significant reduction in civil wars and aristocratic rebellions during his reign are seen by these historians as the result of Louis' consolidation of royal authority over feudal elites.[107] In their analysis, his early reforms centralised France and marked the birth of the modern French state. They regard the political and military victories as well as numerous cultural achievements as the means by which Louis helped raise France to a preeminent position in Europe.[108] Europe came to admire France for its military and cultural successes, power, and sophistication. Europeans generally began to emulate French manners, values, goods, and deportment. French became the universal language of the European elite.
Louis' detractors have argued that his considerable foreign, military, and domestic expenditure impoverished and bankrupted France. His supporters, however, distinguish the state, which was impoverished, from France, which was not. As supporting evidence, they cite the literature of the time, such as the social commentary in Montesquieu's Persian Letters.[109]
Alternatively, Louis' critics attribute the social upheaval culminating in the French Revolution to his failure to reform French institutions while the monarchy was still secure. Other scholars counter that there was little reason to reform institutions that largely worked well under Louis. They also maintain that events occurring almost 80 years after his death were not reasonably foreseeable to Louis, and that in any case, his successors had sufficient time to initiate reforms of their own.[110]
Louis has often been criticised for his vanity. The memoirist Saint-Simon, who claimed that Louis slighted him, criticised him thusly:
There was nothing he liked so much as flattery, or, to put it more plainly, adulation; the coarser and clumsier it was, the more he relished it.
For his part, Voltaire saw Louis' vanity as the cause for his bellicosity:
It is certain that he passionately wanted glory, rather than the conquests themselves. In the acquisition of Alsace and half of Flanders, and of all of Franche-Comté, what he really liked was the name he made for himself.[111]
Nonetheless, Louis has also received praise. The anti-Bourbon Napoleon described him not only as "a great king", but also as "the only King of France worthy of the name".[112]Leibniz, the German Protestant philosopher, commended him as "one of the greatest kings that ever was".[113] And Lord Acton admired him as "by far the ablest man who was born in modern times on the steps of a throne".[114] The historian and philosopher Voltaire wrote: "His name can never be pronounced without respect and without summoning the image of an eternally memorable age".[115] Voltaire's history, The Age of Louis XIVnamed Louis' reign as not only one of the four great ages in which reason and culture flourished, but the greatest ever.[116][117]
In 1848, at Nuneham House, a piece of Louis' mummified heart, taken from his tomb and kept in a silver locket by Lord Harcourt, Archbishop of York, was shown to the Dean of Westminster, William Buckland, who ate it.[118]
Quotes[edit]
Numerous quotes have been attributed to Louis XIV by legend.
The well-known "I am the state" ("L'état, c'est moi.") was reported from at least the late 18th century.[119]
It was widely repeated but also denounced as apocryphal by the early 19th century.[120]
He did say, "Every time I appoint someone to a vacant position, I make a hundred unhappy and one ungrateful." [121][122] Louis is recorded by numerous eyewitnesses as having said on his deathbed: "Je m'en vais, mais l'État demeurera toujours." ("I depart, but the State shall always remain.")[123]
Titles, styles, honours and arms[edit]
| Royal styles of King Louis XIV Par la grâce de Dieu, Roi de France et de Navarre | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Reference style | His Most Christian Majesty |
| Spoken style | Your Most Christian Majesty |
| Alternative style | Monsieur Le Roi |
Titles and styles[edit]
- 5 September 1638 – 14 May 1643 His Royal Highness The Dauphin of France
- 14 May 1643 – 1 September 1715 His Most Christian Majesty The King of France
Louis's formal style was "Louis XIV, par la grâce de Dieu, roi de France et de Navarre", or "Louis XIV, by the Grace of God, King of France and of Navarre".
Arms[edit]
 |
|
Royal standard of the kingOrder of Saint Louis[edit]
On 5 April 1693, Louis also founded the Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis (French: Ordre Royal et Militaire de Saint-Louis), a military order of chivalry.[125][126] He named it after Louis IX and intended it as a reward for outstanding officers. It is notable as the first decoration that could be granted to non-nobles and is roughly the forerunner of the Légion d'honneurwith which it shares the red ribbon (though the Légion d'honneur is awarded to military personnel and civilians alike).
Ancestors[edit]
| Ancestors of Louis XIV of France |
|---|
Patrilineal descent[edit]
| Patrilineal descent |
|---|
Louis' patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that if King Louis were to choose an historically accurate house name it would be Robertian, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house. Louis is a member of the House of Bourbon, a branch of the Capetian dynasty and of the Robertians. Louis' patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. It follows the Bourbon, Kings of France, and the Counts of Paris and Worms. This line can be traced back more than 1,200 years from Robert of Hesbaye to the present day, through Kings of France & Navarre, Spain and Two-Sicilies, Dukes of Parma and Grand-Dukes of Luxembourg, Princes of Orléans and Emperors of Brazil. Es ist eines der ältesten in Europa.
|
Issue[edit]
This is an incomplete list of Louis XIV's illegitimate children. He reputedly had more, but the difficulty in fully documenting all such births restricts the list only to the better-known and legitimised.
| Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| By NN, a gardener | |||
| Daughter | 1660 | unknown | She married N de la Queue, a sentry.[141] |
| By Louise de La Vallière (6 August 1644 – 6 June 1710) | |||
| Charles de La Baume Le Blanc | 19 December 1663 | 15 July 1665 (aged 1) | Not legitimised. |
| Philippe de La Baume Le Blanc | 7 January 1665 | 1666 (aged 1) | Not legitimised. |
| Louis de La Baume Le Blanc | 27 December 1665 | 1666 (aged 1) | Not legitimised.[142][143] |
| Marie Anne de Bourbon | 2 October 1666 | 3 May 1739 (aged 73) | Legitimised on 14 May 1667. Married Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti. |
| Louis, Count of Vermandois | 3 October 1667 | 18 November 1683 (aged 16) | Legitimised on 20 February 1669. Held the office of Admiral of France. |
| By Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan (5 October 1641 – 27 May 1707) | |||
| Louise Françoise de Bourbon | at the end of March, 1669 | 23 February 1672 (aged 2) | |
| Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine | 31 March 1670 | 14 May 1736 (aged 66) | Legitimised on 20 December 1673. Held numerous offices, of which: Colonel General of the Suisses et Grisons, Governor of Languedoc, General of the Galleys, and Grand Master of Artillery. Also Duke of Aumale, Count of Eu and Prince of Dombes. Had issue. Founder of the Maine Line. |
| Louis César, Count of Vexin | 20 June 1672 | 10 January 1683 (aged 10) | Legitimised on 20 December 1673. |
| Louise Françoise de Bourbon | 1 June 1673 | 16 June 1743 (aged 70) | Legitimised on 20 December 1673. Married Louis III, Prince of Condé. Had issue. |
| Louise Marie Anne de Bourbon | 12 November 1674 | 15 September 1681 (aged 6) | Legitimised in January 1676. |
| Françoise Marie de Bourbon | 9 February 1677 | 1 February 1749 (aged 72) | Legitimised in November 1681. Married Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the Regent of France under Louis XV. Had issue. |
| Louis Alexandre, Count of Toulouse | 6 June 1678 | 1 December 1737 (aged 59) | Legitimised on 22 November 1681. Held numerous offices, of which: Admiral of France, Governor of Guyenne, Governor of Brittany, and Grand Huntsman of France. Also Duke of Damville, of Rambouillet and of Penthièvre. Had issue. |
| by Claude de Vin, Mademoiselle des Œillets (1637 – 18 May 1687) | |||
| Louise de Maisonblanche | c. 17 June 1676 | 12 September 1718 (aged 42) | In 1696 she married Bernard de Prez, Baron de La Queue.[144] |
| by Angélique de Fontanges (1661 – 28 June 1681) | |||
| Son | January 1680 | January 1680 (stillborn) | |
| Daughter | March 1681 | March 1681 (stillborn) | Her existence is doubtful. |
See also[edit]
References[edit]
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- ^ Jackson J. Spielvogel (2016). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715. Lernen lernen. p. 419. ISBN 9781305888425.
- ^ a b c "Louis XIV". Katholische Enzyklopädie. 2007. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
- ^ a b James Nathan, "Force, Order, and Diplomacy in the Age of Louis XIV." Virginia Quarterly Review 69#4 (1993) 633+.
- ^ Brémond, Henri (1908). La Provence mystique au XVIIe siècle (in French). Paris: Plon-Nourrit. pp. 381–382.
- ^ François Bluche (translated by Mark Greengrass (1990). Louis XIV. New York: Franklin Watts. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-531-15112-9.
- ^ Fraser, Antonia. "Love and Louis XIV: The Women in the Life of the Sun King". Random House, Inc, 2006, pp. 14–16.
- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 30–40
- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 34–37
- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 29–36
- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 70–75
- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 80–85
- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 84–87
- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 88–90,91–98
- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 148–150
- ^ Bluche 1990, pp. 128–129
- ^ "Louis XIV - the Sun King: Absolutism". louis-xiv.de.
- ^ Ian Dunlop, "Louis XIV", (2001) p. xii
- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 250–253,254–25 5,256–260
- ^ Merryman, John Henry. The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America2007 Stanford University Press.
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- ^ Petitfils 2002, pp. 223–225
- ^ Dunlop, p. 54.
- ^ Lynn 1999, pp. 161–171.
- ^ Meriman, John (1996). A History of Modern Europe. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 319.
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- ^ Keay, John. "The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company", p. 201-204, Harper Collins Publishers, London (1993).
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- ^ a b Sources of Making of the West, People and Cultures, Vol. 2, Since 1340
- ^ a b Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon. "Historical Memoirs of the Duc de Saint-Simon, volume 1 1691–1709: The Court of Louis XIV". Retrieved 19 January 2008.
- ^ Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton (1 April 2015). "Elephant". The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Retrieved 1 April 2015.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
- ^ Coincidentally, at roughly the same time and for the same reasons, Japan adopted a similar policy, called sankin kōtai.
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. [page needed]
- ^ Quoted in Geoffrey Simcox, ed., War, Diplomacy, and Imperialism, 1618–1763 (1974), pp. 236-37.
- ^ Quoted in Simcox, pp. 237, 242.
- ^ For example, see Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008
- ^ Sturdy, David J. "Louis XIV", St Martin's Press, New York (1998), p. 89–99.
- ^ Sturdy, p. 92–93.
- ^ Sturdy, p. 96, citing Pillorget, "France Baroque, France Classique", i, 935.
- ^ Cathal J. Nolan, Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715 (2008) p. 132
- ^ Sturdy, p. 96-97.
- ^ Bluche, p. 20–21.
- ^ Columbia Encyclopedia (2007). "Louis XIV, king of France". Archived from the original on 7 January 2008. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
- ^ David J. Sturdy, p. 98, citing W.C. Scoville, The Persection of Huguenots and French Economic Development, 1680–1720 (1960)
- ^ "casinosdigital.de". booking-help.org. Archived from the original on 14 July 2012.
- ^ Durant, Will and Ariel. "The Story of Civilisation (Volume 8): The Age of Louis XIV", Simon & Schuster, Boston (1963), p. 691.
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. 192.
- ^ Dunlop, Ian. "Louis XIV", p. 313, Pimlico London 2001.
- ^ Lynn 1999, pp. 189–191.
- ^ Lynn 1999, pp. 192–193.
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. [page needed].
- ^ (in French) Cited in Cahiers bruxelloist. III, fasc. II, 1958, by C. Terlinden. Lit.: aussi barbare qu’inutile
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. 232.
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. 253.
- ^ Bluche, p. 653.
- ^ Lossky, Andrew. "Louis XIV and the French Monarchy", New Brunswick, New Jersey (1994), p. 255
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. 267.
- ^ a b Dunlop, Ian. "Louis XIV", p. 353, Pimlico, London 2001.
- ^ Kamen, Henry. (2001) Philip V of Spain: The King who Reigned TwiceYale University Press, p. 6. ISBN 0-300-08718-7.
- ^ Dunlop, p. 358.
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. 269, see footnote 1.
- ^ Lynn 1999, pp. 269–270.
- ^ Merriman, page 321.
- ^ Ó Gráda, Cormac; Chevet, Jean-Michel (2002). "Famine And Market In Ancient Régime France" (PDF). The Journal of Economic History. 62 (3): 706–733. doi:10.1017/S0022050702001055. hdl:10197/368. PMID 17494233.
- ^ "Cambridge Journals Online - The Journal of Economic History - Abstract - FAMINE AND MARKET IN ANCIEN RÉGIME FRANCE". cambridge.org.
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. 326.
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. 334.
- ^ Lynn 1999, p. 342.
- ^ Lynn 1999, pp. 356–360.
- ^ Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008
- ^ "Morganatic and Secret Marriages in the French Royal Family". Retrieved 10 July 2008.: The description of the marriage as morganatic is inaccurate as French law does not define such marriages.
- ^ John B. Wolf, Louis XIV p. 280.
- ^ Gaudelus, Sébastien (2000). "La Mise en Spectacle De La Religion Royale: Recherches sur la Devotion de Louis XIV" (PDF). Histoire, Economie et Société. 19 (4): 513–526. doi:10.3406/hes.2000.2133.
- ^ Tony Claydon, Europe and the Making of England, 1660–1760 (2007) p 182
- ^ Dunlop, Ian. "Louis XIV", p. 242-251, Pimlico London 2001.
- ^ Dunlop, p. 247.
- ^ Bluche, François. "Louis XIV", p. 497, Hachette Litteratures, Paris (1986).
- ^ Burke, Peter (1992). "The fabrication of Louis XIV". History Today. 42 (2).
- ^ Perez, Stanis (July–September 2003). "Les rides d'Apollon: l'évolution des portraits de Louis XIV" [Apollo's Wrinkles: The Evolution of Portraits of Louis XIV]. Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine. 50 (3): 62–95. ISSN 0048-8003. JSTOR 20530984.
- ^ See also Schmitter, Amy M. (2002). "Representation and the Body of Power in French Academic Painting". Journal of the History of Ideas. 63 (3): 399–424. doi:10.1353/jhi.2002.0027. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 3654315.
- ^ Sabatier, Gérard (2000). "La Gloire du Roi: Iconographie de Louis XIV de 1661 a 1672" (PDF). Histoire, Economie et Société. 19 (4): 527–560. doi:10.3406/hes.2000.2134.
- ^ a b c Prest, Julia (2001). "Dancing King: Louis XIV's Roles in Molière's Comedies-ballets, from Court to Town". Seventeenth Century. 16 (2): 283–298. ISSN 0268-117X. Fulltext: Ebsco
- ^ Jens Ivo, Engels (July–September 2003). "Dénigrer, espérer, assumer la réalité. Le roi de France perçu par ses sujets, 1680-1750" [Disparaging, Hoping, Taking on Reality: the French King as Perceived by His Subjects, 1680–1750]. Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine. 50 (3): 96–126. JSTOR 20530985.
- ^ "Servier - Famous French diabetics". Medicographia.com.
- ^ Dunlop, p. 468.
- ^ Schama, Simon (1990). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (Reprint ed.). Jahrgang. ISBN 978-0679726104.
- ^ Dunlop, p. 454–455.
- ^ Antoine, p. 33–37.
- ^ Peace and War: Armed Conflicts and International Order, 1648-1989ed. Kalevi J. Holsti, (Cambridge University Press, 1991), 74.
- ^ a b Bluche, p. 890.
- ^ See above, section on "Height of Power."
- ^ Dunlop, p. 433; citing Montesquieu: "Louis established the greatness of France by building Versailles and Marly."
- ^ Bluche, p. 876, Hachette Litteratures, Paris (1986).
- ^ Bluche, p. 506 & 877–878, Hachette Litteratures, Paris (1986).
- ^ "The wars of Louis XIV". wisc.edu.
- ^ Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon's Notes on English History made on the Eve of the French Revolutionillustrated from Contemporary Historians and referenced from the findings of Later Research by Henry Foljambe Hall. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1905, 258.
- ^ Bluche, p. 926.
- ^ Durant, Will and Ariel. "The Story of Civilisation (Volume 8): The Age of Louis XIV," p. 721.
- ^ Rogers Neill Sehnaoui, Caroline (Cally) (2013-03-01). Victorious Charles: A Ladies' Man - a Biography of King Charles Vii of France (1403-1461). Strategic Book Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 9781625160492.
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- ^ Jean Etienne François Marignié, The king can do no wrong: Le roi ne peut jamais avoit tort, le roi ne peut mal faireLe Normant, 1818 p. 12.
The anecdote as circulated after the French Revolution, designed to illustrate the tyrannical character of the absolutism of the Ancien Régimeheld that the president of the parlement began to address the king with the words Sire, l'Etat [...] but was cut off by the king interjecting L'Etat c'est moi.
Jenaische Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung No. 31, (February 1817), vol. 14.1 (1818), p. 241. - ^ Tim Blanning, The Pursuit of Glory: The Five Revolutions That Made Modern Europe (2008) p. 286
- ^ Peter H. Wilson, Absolutism in central Europe (2000) p. 54
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- ^ a b Marie de Médicis at Encyclopædia Britannica
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- ^ a b Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Margaretha (Königin von Spanien)" (in German). Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire]. 7 . Wikisource. p. 13.
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Kurth, Godefroid (1911). . In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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Notes[edit]
Bibliography[edit]
- Anselme de Sainte-Marie, Père (1726). Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale de France [Genealogical and chronological history of the royal house of France] (in French). 1 (3. Aufl.). Paris: La compagnie des libraires.
- Ashley, Maurice P. Louis XIV And The Greatness Of France (1965) excerpt and text search
- Beik, William. Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents (2000) excerpt and text search
- Beik, William. "The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration." Past & Present 2005 (188): 195–224. online at Project MUSE
- Bély, Lucien (2001). The History of France. Paris: Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. ISBN 978-2-87747-563-1.
- Bluche, François, Louis XIV(Franklin Watts, 1990) ISBN 0531151123
- Bryant, Mark (2004). "Partner, Matriarch, and Minister: Mme de Maintenon of France, Clandestine Consort, 1680-1715". In Campbell Orr Clarissa. Queenship in Europe 1660-1815: The Role of the Consort. Cambridge University Press. pp. 77–106. ISBN 978-0-521-81422-5.
- Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008. ISBN 9780747580980
- Wolf Burchard: "The Sovereign Artist: Charles Le Brun and the Image of Louis XIV", Paul Holberton Publishing, 2016, ISBN 1911300059
- Burke, Peter. The Fabrication of Louis XIV (1994) ISBN 0300051530
- Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 5 The Age Of Louis XIV (1908), old, solid articles by scholars; complete text online
- Campbell, Peter Robert. Louis XIV, 1661–1715 (London, 1993)
- Church, William F., ed. The Greatness of Louis XIV. (1972).
- Cowart, Georgia J. The Triumph of Pleasure: Louis XIV and the Politics of Spectacle U of Chicago Press, 2008. ISBN 9780226116389
- Cronin, Vincent. Louis XIV. London: HarperCollins, 1996. ISBN 9781860460920
- Dunlop, Ian. Louis XIV (2000), 512pp excerpt and text search
- Engerand, Fernand, editor (1899). Inventaire des tableaux du Roy rédigé en 1709 et 1710 par Nicolas Bailly. Paris: Ernest Leroux. Copy at Gallica.
- Erlanger, Philippe, Louis XIV Praeger, 1970.
- Fraser, Antonia. Love and Louis XIV: The Women in the Life of the Sun King. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-297-82997-1); New York: Nan A. Talese, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-385-50984-7)
- Goubert, Pierre (197). Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen. social history from Annales School. ISBN 978-0394717517.
- Hatton, Ragnhild Marie (1972). Louis XIV and His World. New York: Putnam.
- Jones, Colin. The Great Nation: France from Louis XIV to Napoleon (1715–1799) (2002)
- Lewis, W. H. The Splendid Century: Life in the France of Louis XIV (1953) excerpt and text search; also online complete edition
- Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Ancien Régime: A History of France 1610–1774 (1999), survey by leader of the Annales School excerpt and text search
- Lynn, John A. (1999). The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714. New York: Longman.
- McCoy, Bernard J. (1942). "St. Vincent De Paul's Letters on Jansenism". The Catholic Historical Review. 27 (4): 442–449.
- Mitford, Nancy. The Sun King (1995), popular excerpt and text search
- Nolan, Cathal J. Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization . (2008) 607pp; over 1000 entries; ISBN 978-0-313-33046-9
- Petitfils, Jean-Christian (2002). Louis XIV (in French). Paris: Perrin. OCLC 423881843.
- Rowlands, Guy. The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 1661–1701 (2002) online edition
- Rubin, David Lee, ed. Sun King: The Ascendancy of French Culture during the Reign of Louis XIV. Washington: Folger Books and Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1992.
- Rule, John C., Louis XIV and the craft of kingship 1969.
- Shennan, J. H. Louis XIV (1993) online edition
- Sonnino, Paul (1998). "Prelude to the Fronde: The French Delegation at the Peace of Westphalia". In Heinz Duchhardt, ed. Der Westfälische Friede: Diplomatie–Politische Zäsur–Kulturelles Umfeld–Rezeptionsgeschichte. München: Oldenberg Verlag GmbH. ISBN 3-486-56328-9.CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
- Thompson, Ian. The Sun King's Garden: Louis XIV, André Le Nôtre And the Creation of the Gardens of Versailles. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006 ISBN 1-58234-631-3
- Treasure, Geoffrey. Louis XIV (London, 2001). ISBN 0582279585
- Treasure, Geoffrey. The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780 (3rd ed. 2003). pp 230–96.
- Wilkinson, Rich. Louis XIV Routledge, 2007. ISBN 9780415358156
- Wolf, John B. (1968). Louis XIV. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. the standard scholarly biography; online Questia edition
Primary sources[edit]
- Ranum, Orest, ed. The Century of Louis XIV (1972) documents; online
External links[edit]
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* died without surviving issue | ||
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