Jamaika - Wikipedia

Jamaika
Motto: "Out of many, one people"
] Hauptstadt und größte Stadt	Kingston 17 ° 59′N 76 ° 48′W / 17.983 ° N 76.800 ° W / ] 17.983; -76.800
Offizielle Sprachen	Englisch
Nationalsprache	Jamaican Patois ( de facto )
. 19659019] Demonym (s)	Jamaican
Regierung	Einheitliche parlamentarische konstitutionelle Monarchie
	Elizabeth II
	Patrick Allen
	Bryan Holkes
	Bryan Sykes
Legislatur	Parlament
	Senat
	Repräsentantenhaus
Unabhängigkeit
• Zugewiesen	6. August 1962
Fläche		10991 km	10991 km 2 (4.244 Quadratmeilen) (160.)
• Wasser (%)	1.5
Bevölkerung
• Schätzung von 2017	2,890,299 • Dichte	266 [4] / km 2 (688.9 / sq mi)
BIP (PPP)	2017 Schätzung
• Gesamt	26,446 Milliarden US-Dollar [5] (2017)
• Pro Kopf	9.297 US-Dollar (19459055) [5]
BIP (nominal)	2017 geschätzt	14,556 Milliarden US-Dollar [5]
• Pro Kopf	5,117 US-Dollar [5]
Gini (19459053) (19459053) (19456553) (19456553) [6] mittel · 84. [7]
HDI (2017)	[8] hoch · 97.
Währung	Jamaikanischer Dollar (JMD)
Zeitzone	UTC-5
Fahrseite	links
Aufrufcode	+ 1-876 + 1-658 (Überlagerung von 876; aktiv im November 2018)
Code der ISO 3166	JM
Internet TLD	.jm

Jamaica ( (19659081) ) ) ist ein Inselstaat im karibischen Meer. Mit einer Fläche von 10.990 km² ist sie die drittgrößte Insel der Großen Antillen und das viertgrößte Inselland der Karibik. Jamaika liegt etwa 145 Kilometer südlich von Kuba und 191 Kilometer westlich von Hispaniola (der Insel mit den Ländern Haiti und der Dominikanischen Republik).

Die Insel, die zuvor von den Ureinwohnern Arawak und Taíno bewohnt wurde, kam nach der Ankunft von Christopher Columbus im Jahr 1494 unter spanische Herrschaft. Viele der Ureinwohner starben an Krankheiten, und die Spanier siedelten afrikanische Sklaven nach Jamaika als Arbeiter an. Die Insel blieb bis 1655 im Besitz Spaniens, als England (später Großbritannien) es eroberte und es in Jamaika umbenannte. Unter britischer Kolonialherrschaft wurde Jamaika zu einem führenden Exporteur von Zucker, wobei seine Plantagenwirtschaft stark von afrikanischen Sklaven abhängig war. Die Briten emanzipierten 1838 alle Sklaven, und viele befreite Männer entschieden sich für Subsistenzbetriebe, anstatt auf Plantagen zu arbeiten. Ab den 1840er Jahren nutzten die Briten chinesische und indische Arbeitskräfte, um auf Plantagen zu arbeiten. Die Insel erlangte am 6. August 1962 die Unabhängigkeit vom Vereinigten Königreich.

Jamaika ist mit 2,9 Millionen Einwohnern ^[9] das drittgrößte anglophone Land in Amerika (nach den Vereinigten Staaten und Kanada) und das viertbevölkerungsreichste Land der Karibik. Kingston ist die Hauptstadt und größte Stadt des Landes mit 937.700 Einwohnern. Jamaikaner haben hauptsächlich afrikanische Vorfahren, mit bedeutenden europäischen, chinesischen, indischen, libanesischen und gemischten Rassen. Aufgrund der hohen Arbeitsemigrationsrate seit den 1960er Jahren hat Jamaika weltweit eine große Diaspora, insbesondere in Kanada, dem Vereinigten Königreich und den Vereinigten Staaten.

Jamaika ist ein Commonwealth-Reich mit Königin Elizabeth II. Als Monarch und Staatsoberhaupt. Ihr ernannter Vertreter im Land ist der Generalgouverneur von Jamaika, ein Amt, das Sir Patrick Allen seit 2009 innehat. Andrew Holness ist seit März 2016 Regierungschef und Premierminister von Jamaika. Jamaika ist eine parlamentarische konstitutionelle Monarchie mit Legislative Macht im Zweikammerparlament von Jamaika, bestehend aus einem ernannten Senat und einem direkt gewählten Abgeordnetenhaus.

Etymologie

Die Ureinwohner, die Taíno, nannten die Insel Xaymaca in Arawakan, ^[10] bedeutet "Land der Wälder und Wasser" oder "Land der Quellen". ^[11]

Umgangssprachlich bezeichnen Jamaikaner ihre Heimatinsel als "Rock". Slangnamen wie "Jamrock", "Jamdown" ("Jamdung" in Jamaican Patois) oder kurz "Ja" haben sich hieraus abgeleitet. ^[12]

History

Vorgeschichte

Die Arawak und Taíno sind Ureinwohner in Südamerika, zwischen 4000 und 1000 v. Chr. auf der Insel ansässig. ^[13] Als Christopher Columbus 1494 ankam, gab es mehr als 200 Dörfer, die von Caciques (Oberhäupter der Dörfer) regiert wurden. Die Südküste Jamaikas war am dichtesten besiedelt, vor allem in der Gegend, die jetzt als Old Harbour bekannt ist. ^[13] Die Taino bewohnten Jamaika immer noch, als die Engländer 1655 die Kontrolle über die Insel übernahmen. ^[13] Der Jamaican National Heritage Trust versucht dies zu tun Belege für den Taino / Arawak finden und dokumentieren. ^[14]

Spanische Herrschaft (1509–1655)

Christopher Columbus forderte Jamaika für Spanien, nachdem er 1494 dort gelandet war. Sein wahrscheinlicher Landeplatz war Dry Harbor, Discovery Bay, ^[15] ] und St. Ann's Bay wurde von Columbus als "Saint Gloria" als erste Sichtung des Landes bezeichnet. Anderthalb Kilometer westlich von St. Ann's Bay befindet sich die erste spanische Siedlung auf der Insel, Sevilla, die 1509 gegründet und 1524 wegen Ungesundheit verlassen wurde. ^[16] Die Hauptstadt wurde in die spanische Stadt verlegt , dann St. Jago de la Vega um 1534 (heute St. Katharina). ^[17]

Britische Herrschaft (1655–1962)

Spanish Town hat die älteste Kathedrale der britischen Kolonien in der Karibik. ^[17] Die Spanier wurden bei Ocho Rios in St. Ann von den Engländern vertrieben. Bei der Invasion Jamaikas von 1655 übernahmen die Engländer, angeführt von Sir William Penn und General Robert Venables, die letzte spanische Festung der Insel. ^[18] Der Name von Montego Bay, der Hauptstadt der Pfarrkirche St. James, war abgeleitet vom spanischen Namen manteca bahía (oder Bay of Lard), was auf die Schmalz-Industrie anspielt, die auf der Verarbeitung der zahlreichen Eber in der Gegend basiert. ^[19]

Henry Morgan war ein berühmter Karibik-Pirat und -Peterer. Wie die meisten der frühen englischen Kolonisten war er zuerst als indentured Bediensteter nach Westindien gekommen. ^[20]

1660 bestand die Bevölkerung Jamaikas aus 4.500 weißen und 1.500 Schwarzen. ^[21] In den frühen 1670er Jahren als Engländer entwickelte Zuckerrohrplantagen und "importierte" mehr Sklaven, Schwarze bildeten eine Mehrheit der Bevölkerung. ^[22] Die Kolonie wurde durch das Erdbeben von Jamaika 1692 erschüttert und fast zerstört.

Die Iren auf Jamaika bildeten auch einen großen Teil der frühen Bevölkerung der Insel. Sie machten Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts zwei Drittel der weißen Bevölkerung der Insel aus, doppelt so viel wie die englische Bevölkerung. Sie wurden nach der Eroberung Jamaikas durch Cromwells Truppen im Jahre 1655 als verpflichtete Arbeiter und Soldaten herbeigeführt. Die Mehrheit der Iren wurde als politische Kriegsgefangene aus Irland infolge der zu dieser Zeit andauernden Kriege der Drei Königreiche mit Gewalt aus Irland transportiert. ^[23] Die Migration einer großen Anzahl Iren auf die Insel setzte sich im 18. Jahrhundert fort. ^[24]

1492 wurden Juden aus Spanien vertrieben und in Portugal während eines Zeitraums von 2000 zwangsweise zum Christentum konvertiert Verfolgung durch die Inquisition. Einige spanische und portugiesische jüdische Flüchtlinge gingen in die Niederlande und nach England und von dort nach Jamaika. Andere waren Teil der iberischen Kolonisation der Neuen Welt, nachdem sie sich offen zum Katholizismus bekehrt hatten, da in den spanischen Kolonien nur Katholiken erlaubt waren. Bis 1660 war Jamaika ein Zufluchtsort für Juden in der Neuen Welt und zog auch diejenigen an, die aus Spanien und Portugal vertrieben worden waren.

Eine frühe Gruppe von Juden kam 1510 an, kurz nachdem sich der Sohn von Christoph Kolumbus auf der Insel niedergelassen hatte. Die jüdische Gemeinde, die hauptsächlich als Kaufleute und Händler tätig war, musste ein geheimes Leben führen und nannte sich "Portugals". Nachdem die Briten die Herrschaft über Jamaika übernommen hatten, entschieden die Juden, dass die beste Verteidigung gegen die Wiedererlangung der Kontrolle Spaniens die Kolonie zu einem Stützpunkt für karibische Piraten machen sollte. Mit den Piraten, die in Port Royal, der größten Stadt der Karibik, installiert wurden, würden die Spanier vom Angriff abgehalten. Die britischen Führer stimmten mit der Durchführbarkeit dieser Strategie überein, um einer Aggression von außen vorzubeugen. ^[25]

Als die Engländer Jamaika 1655 eroberten, flohen die spanischen Kolonisten nach der Befreiung ihrer Sklaven. ^[18] Die Sklaven zerstreuten sich in die Berge und schloss sich den Maroons an, denjenigen, die zuvor geflüchtet waren, um bei den Ureinwohnern von Taíno zu leben. ^[26] In den Jahrhunderten der Sklaverei errichtete Maroons freie Gemeinden im gebirgigen Inneren von Jamaika, wo sie sich unterhielten ihre Freiheit und Unabhängigkeit für Generationen. Die Jamaican Maroons bekämpften die Briten im 18. Jahrhundert. Unter den Verträgen von 1738 und 1739 stimmten die Briten zu, nicht mehr zu versuchen, sie zusammenzureißen, sondern sie würden die Kolonialsiedlungen allein verlassen, dienten jedoch, falls erforderlich, für militärische Aktionen. ^[26] Einige der Gemeinden wurden aufgelöst und die Briten Maroons deportiert nach Nova Scotia und später nach Sierra Leone. Der Name wird noch heute von modernen Maroon-Nachkommen verwendet, die bestimmte Rechte und Autonomie in der Gemeinde Accompong haben.

In den ersten 200 Jahren der britischen Herrschaft wurde Jamaika zu einer der führenden sklavenabhängigen Kolonien mit Zuckerexport und produzierte zwischen 1820 und 1824 jährlich mehr als 77.000 Tonnen Zucker. Nach der Abschaffung des internationalen Sklavenhandels in 1807, ^[27] begannen die Briten, verpflichtete Bedienstete "zu" importieren, um das Arbeitskräfteangebot zu ergänzen, da viele Freigelassenen sich weigerten, auf den Plantagen zu arbeiten. Arbeiter, die aus Indien rekrutiert wurden, kamen 1845 an, chinesische Arbeiter 1854. ^[28] Viele südasiatische und chinesische Nachkommen leben heute noch auf Jamaika. ^[29][30]

Montpelier Plantation, Eigentum von C. R. Ellis, Esq. M.P., c. 1820

Zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts hatte Jamaikas Abhängigkeit von Sklavenarbeit und einer Plantagenökonomie dazu geführt, dass schwarze Menschen fast 20 zu 1 Weißen überlegen waren. Obwohl Großbritannien die Einfuhr von Sklaven verboten hatte, waren einige davon betroffen noch aus spanischen Kolonien und direkt eingeschmuggelt. Das britische Parlament verabschiedete Gesetze, um die Bedingungen für Sklaven zu verbessern. Sie verboten den Gebrauch von Peitschen auf dem Feld und das Auspeitschen von Frauen; informierte die Pflanzer darüber, dass Sklaven religiösen Unterricht gewährt werden sollten und erforderte in jeder Woche einen freien Tag, an dem Sklaven ihre Erzeugnisse verkaufen konnten ^[31] was den Sonntagsmärkten untersagte, Sklaven den Besuch der Kirche zu ermöglichen. ^{Zitat erforderlich ]]}

Das Versammlungshaus in Jamaika ärgerte sich und widersetzte sich den neuen Gesetzen. Mitglieder (damals nur für Europäer aus Jamaika beschränkt) behaupteten, die Sklaven seien zufrieden und lehnten die Einmischung des Parlaments in die Inselangelegenheiten ab. Sklavenbesitzer befürchteten mögliche Revolten, wenn die Bedingungen aufgehellt wurden. Nach einer Reihe von Rebellionen auf der Insel und einer veränderten Haltung in Großbritannien schaffte die britische Regierung die Sklaverei formell ab. Sie begann 1834 mit der vollständigen Emanzipation der Chattel-Sklaverei, die 1838 erklärt wurde. 1834 waren es 371.070 Einwohner, davon 15.000 waren weiß, 5000 Schwarzes frei; 40.000 "farbige" oder freie Menschen der Farbe (gemischte Rasse); und 311.070 waren Sklaven. ^[21]

In den nächsten 20 Jahren töteten mehrere Epidemien von Cholera, Scarlatina und Pocken die Insel, wobei fast 60.000 Menschen getötet wurden (etwa 100 pro Tag). Im Jahr 1871 wurde die Volkszählung jedoch bei einer Bevölkerung von 506.154 Menschen erfasst, darunter 246.573 Männer und 259.581 Frauen. Ihre Rennen wurden als 13.101 Weiß, 100.346 Farbig (gemischt Schwarz und Weiß) und 392.707 Schwarze aufgezeichnet. ^[32]

Im 19. Jahrhundert errichteten die Briten mehrere botanische Gärten. Dazu gehörten der Castleton Botanical Gardens, der 1862 als Ersatz für den überfluteten Bath Botanical Gardens (1779) entwickelt wurde. In Bath Botanical Gardens wurden Brotfrüchte angebaut, die vom Kapitän William Bligh aus dem Pazifik nach Jamaika gebracht wurden. Es wurde ein Grundnahrungsmittel in Inseldiäten. Weitere Gärten waren die 1868 gegründete Cinchona Plantation und die 1874 gegründeten Hope Botanical Gardens. 1872 wurde Kingston zur Hauptstadt der Insel ernannt.

[1945 wurde Sir Horace Hector Hearne Chefjustizminister und Hüter der Aufzeichnungen in Jamaika. Er leitete den Obersten Gerichtshof in Kingston zwischen 1945 und 1950/1951. Nachdem Kenia die Unabhängigkeit erlangt hatte, ernannte seine Regierung ihn zum Obersten Richter und er zog dorthin.

Unabhängigkeit (1962)

Jamaika erlangte langsam zunehmende Unabhängigkeit vom Vereinigten Königreich. Im Jahr 1958 wurde es eine Provinz in der Föderation der Antillen, eine Föderation unter den britischen Antillen. Mit dem Ausscheiden aus dem Bund 1962 erlangte Jamaika die volle Unabhängigkeit.

Ein starkes Wirtschaftswachstum von durchschnittlich etwa 6% pro Jahr kennzeichnete die ersten zehn Jahre der Unabhängigkeit unter konservativen Regierungen der Jamaica Labour Party. Sie wurden nacheinander von den Premierministern Alexander Bustamante, Donald Sangster und Hugh Shearer geführt. Das Wachstum wurde durch starke private Investitionen in Bauxit / Aluminiumoxid, Tourismus, verarbeitendes Gewerbe und in geringerem Maße in den Agrarsektor getrieben.

Der Optimismus des ersten Jahrzehnts wurde begleitet von einem wachsenden Gefühl der Ungleichheit unter vielen Afro-Jamaikanern und der Sorge, dass die städtischen Armen die Vorteile des Wachstums nicht teilen. ^{[ 19659128]]} Kombiniert mit den Auswirkungen einer Abschwächung der Weltwirtschaft im Jahre 1970, ^[] ] wählten die Wähler 1972 die PNP (People's National Party) versuchte, sozial gerechtere Politiken in den Bereichen Bildung und Gesundheit umzusetzen, aber die Wirtschaft litt unter ihrer Führung. Bis 1980 war Jamaikas Bruttosozialprodukt um rund 25% unter das Niveau von 1972 gefallen. Aufgrund steigender Auslands- und Inlandsverschuldung, begleitet von hohen Haushaltsdefiziten, forderte die Regierung die Finanzierung des Internationalen Währungsfonds (IWF) von den Vereinigten Staaten und anderen Ländern an.

Die wirtschaftliche Verschlechterung setzte sich Mitte der achtziger Jahre fort und wurde durch eine Reihe von Faktoren verstärkt. Der erste und der drittgrößte Aluminiumoxidhersteller, Alpart und Alcoa, wurden geschlossen, und der zweitgrößte Hersteller Alcan verzeichnete einen deutlichen Produktionsrückgang. Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. hat die jamaikanische Industrie verlassen. Auch der Tourismus war rückläufig, was für die Wirtschaft wichtig war.

Unabhängigkeit, auch wenn sie in Jamaika weithin gefeiert wird, wurde im frühen 21. Jahrhundert in Frage gestellt. Eine Umfrage ergab im Jahr 2011, dass rund 60% der Jamaikaner der Meinung sind, dass das Land besser wäre, wenn es eine britische Kolonie geblieben wäre, und nur 17% glaubten, dass es schlechter wäre, wobei das jahrelange soziale und fiskalische Missmanagement im Land als problematisch bezeichnet wird. ^[33][34]

Regierung und Politik

Jamaika ist eine parlamentarische Demokratie und eine konstitutionelle Monarchie, wobei Königin Elizabeth II. Als jamaikanischer Monarch fungiert. ^[35] Da Elizabeth II. Als Staatsoberhaupt von fünfzehn anderen Ländern geteilt wird und hauptsächlich in den Vereinigten Staaten lebt Königreich ist sie daher häufig als Königin von Jamaika in Jamaika und im Ausland durch den Generalgouverneur von Jamaika vertreten. ^[36]

Der Generalgouverneur wird vom Premierminister von Jamaika und vom gesamten Ministerpräsidenten nominiert Kabinett und dann vom Monarchen ernannt. Alle Kabinettsmitglieder werden auf Vorschlag des Premierministers vom Generalgouverneur ernannt. Der Monarch und der Generalgouverneur üben weitgehend zeremonielle Rollen aus, abgesehen von ihren Reservemächten, die in bestimmten Verfassungskrisensituationen zum Einsatz kommen.

Jamaikas aktuelle Verfassung wurde 1962 von einem paritätischen parlamentarischen Ausschuss der jamaikanischen Legislative verfasst. Es trat mit dem Jamaica Independence Act 1962 des britischen Parlaments in Kraft, das Jamaika die Unabhängigkeit verlieh.

Das Parlament von Jamaika ist ein Zweikammersystem, bestehend aus dem Repräsentantenhaus (Unterhaus) und dem Senat (Oberhaus). Abgeordnete des Parlaments (bekannt als Parlamentsabgeordnete oder Abgeordnete ) werden direkt gewählt, und das Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses, das nach bestem Urteil des Generalgouverneurs das Vertrauen eines Parlamentsmitglieds am besten beherrschen kann Die Mehrheit der Mitglieder dieses Hauses wird vom Generalgouverneur zum Premierminister ernannt. Senatoren werden gemeinsam vom Premierminister und dem parlamentarischen Oppositionsführer ernannt und dann vom Generalgouverneur ernannt.

Politische Parteien und Wahlen

Jamaika hatte traditionell ein Zweiparteiensystem, wobei die Macht häufig zwischen der People's National Party (PNP) und der Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) wechselte. Die Partei mit aktueller Verwaltungs- und Legislativmacht ist die Jamaica Labour Party mit einer Parlamentsmehrheit ab 2016 ^[update]. Es gibt auch mehrere kleinere Parteien, die noch keinen Sitz im Parlament haben; Die größte davon ist die National Democratic Movement (NDM).

Verwaltungsgliederung

Jamaika ist in 14 Gemeinden unterteilt, die in drei historischen Bezirken ohne administrative Bedeutung zusammengefasst sind.

Im Kontext der Kommunalverwaltung werden die Gemeinden als "Kommunalbehörden" bezeichnet. Diese lokalen Behörden werden auch als "Municipal Corporations" bezeichnet, bei denen es sich entweder um Stadtgemeinden oder um Stadtgemeinden handelt. ^[37] Jede neue Stadtgemeinde muss eine Bevölkerung von mindestens 50.000 haben, und eine Stadtgemeinde hat eine vom Minister für Kommunalverwaltung festgelegte Anzahl . ^[37] Derzeit gibt es keine Stadtgemeinden.

Die lokalen Regierungen der Gemeinden Kingston und St. Andrews werden als Stadtgemeinde Kingston & St. Andrew Municipal Corporation zusammengefasst. Die neueste Stadtgemeinde, die 2003 gegründet wurde, ist die Gemeinde Portmore. Obwohl sie sich geographisch in der Pfarrei St. Catherine befindet, wird sie unabhängig regiert.

Militär

Jamaikanische Soldaten trainieren, um die FN FAL im Jahr 2002 abzufeuern.

Die Jamaica Defense Force (JDF) ist die kleine, aber professionelle Streitmacht Jamaikas . Das JDF basiert auf dem britischen Militärmodell mit ähnlicher Organisation, Ausbildung, Waffen und Traditionen. Sobald sie ausgewählt sind, werden Offizierskandidaten zu einem von mehreren britischen oder kanadischen Grundoffizierskursen geschickt, je nach Dienstarm. Eingeschriebene Soldaten erhalten eine Grundausbildung im Up Park Camp oder im JDF Training Depot in Newcastle, beide in St. Andrew. Wie beim britischen Modell erhalten die Unteroffiziere mehrere Stufen der Berufsausbildung, wenn sie in die Reihe aufsteigen. Zusätzliche militärische Schulen stehen für Spezialtrainings in Kanada, den Vereinigten Staaten und dem Vereinigten Königreich zur Verfügung.

Das JDF stammt direkt von dem in der Kolonialzeit gebildeten West India Regiment der britischen Armee ab. ^[38] Das West India Regiment wurde vom Britischen Empire ausgiebig bei der Polizeiarbeit des Imperiums von 1795 bis 1926 eingesetzt. Andere Einheiten des JDF-Erbes Dazu gehören die frühen kolonialen Miliz von Jamaica, die Freiwilligen von Kingston Infantry aus dem Ersten Weltkrieg, die im Zweiten Weltkrieg zu jamaikanischen Infanteriefreiwilligen reorganisiert wurden. Das westindische Regiment wurde 1958 als Teil der westindischen Föderation reformiert. Nach der Auflösung der Föderation wurde das JDF gegründet.

Die Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) besteht aus einem Infanterie-Regiment und einem Reservekorps, einem Luftflügel, einer Flotte der Küstenwache und einer unterstützenden Ingenieur-Einheit. ^[39] Das Infanterieregiment enthält das 1., 2. und 3. Bataillon der National Reserve . Der JDF Air Wing ist in drei Flugeinheiten, eine Trainingseinheit, eine Unterstützungseinheit und den JDF Air Wing (National Reserve) unterteilt. Die Küstenwache ist zwischen Seemannsbesatzungen und Hilfsteams aufgeteilt, die die Sicherheit im Seeverkehr und die Durchsetzung des Seeverkehrs sowie verteidigungsbezogene Operationen durchführen. [19459161[40]

Die Aufgabe des Unterstützungsbataillons besteht darin, Unterstützung zu leisten Steigern Sie die Zahl im Kampf und stellen Sie Kompetenztraining zur Verfügung, um die Einsatzbereitschaft der Streitkräfte zu ermöglichen. ^[41] Das 1st Engineer Regiment wurde aufgrund einer erhöhten Nachfrage nach Militäringenieuren gebildet, deren Aufgabe darin besteht, Ingenieurdienstleistungen anzubieten, wann und wo immer sie benötigt werden ^[42] Im JDF-Hauptquartier befinden sich der JDF-Befehlshaber, der Kommandostab sowie der Geheimdienst, das Richteranwaltschaftsbüro, die Verwaltungs- und Beschaffungsabteilungen. ^[43]

In den letzten Jahren wurde der JDF aufgerufen Unterstützung der nationalen Polizei, der Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF), bei der Bekämpfung des Drogenschmuggels und einer steigenden Kriminalitätsrate, die eine der höchsten Mordraten der Welt einschließt. JDF-Einheiten führen aktiv bewaffnete Patrouillen mit dem JCF in Gebieten mit hoher Kriminalität und bekannten Bandenvierteln durch. Es gab heftige Kontroversen sowie die Unterstützung dieser JDF-Rolle. Anfang 2005 forderte ein Oppositionsführer, Edward Seaga, die Fusion von JDF und JCF. Dies hat weder in der Organisation noch bei der Mehrheit der Bürger Unterstützung gefunden.

Geographie und Umwelt

Jamaika ist die drittgrößte Insel in der Karibik. ^[44] Es liegt zwischen den Breitengraden 17 ° und 19 ° N und den Längengraden 76 ° und 79 ° W. Berge, einschließlich der Blue Mountains, dominieren das Landesinnere. Sie sind von einer schmalen Küstenebene umgeben. ^[45] Jamaika hat nur zwei Städte, die erste ist Kingston, die Hauptstadt und das Geschäftszentrum, an der Südküste gelegen und die "zweite" Stadt ist Montego Bay, eine der besten bekannte Städte in der Karibik für den Tourismus, an der Nordküste gelegen. Weitere Städte sind Portmore, Spanish Town, Mandeville und die Ferienorte Ocho Ríos, Port Antonio und Negril. ^[46]

Der Hafen von Kingston ist der siebtgrößte natürliche Hafen der Welt, ^[47] was dazu beitrug, dass die Stadt 1872 als Hauptstadt bezeichnet wurde.

Zu den Sehenswürdigkeiten zählen die Dunn's River Falls in St. Ann, die YS Falls in St. Elizabeth, die Blaue Lagune in Portland, die vermutlich der Krater eines erloschenen Vulkans sind. Port Royal war der Ort eines großen Erdbebens im Jahr 1692, das zur Gründung der Palisaden der Insel beigetragen hat. ^{[48] [1945950] [58] [50] [58] ]}

Das Klima in Jamaika ist tropisch mit heißem und feuchtem Wetter, obwohl die höheren Regionen im Landesinneren gemäßigter sind. ^[52] Einige Regionen an der Südküste, wie die Liguanea Plain und die Pedro Plains, sind relativ trockene Regen-Schatten-Gebiete ^[53]

Jamaika liegt im Hurrikangürtel des Atlantiks, weshalb die Insel manchmal erheblichen Sturmschaden erleidet. ^[54] Die Hurrikane Charlie und Gilbert schlagen auf Jamaica ein direkt in den Jahren 1951 und 1988, was zu großen Schäden und vielen Todesfällen führte. In den 2000er Jahren (Jahrzehnt) brachten die Wirbelstürme Ivan, Dean und Gustav auch Unwetter auf die Insel.

Zu den vielfältigen terrestrischen, aquatischen und marinen Ökosystemen zählen trockene und nasse Kalkwälder, Regenwald, Auwald, Feuchtgebiete, Höhlen, Flüsse, Seegraswiesen und Korallenriffe. Die Behörden haben die enorme Bedeutung und das Potenzial der Umwelt erkannt und einige der "fruchtbareren" Gebiete als "geschützt" ausgewiesen. Zu den geschützten Gebieten der Insel gehören das Cockpit Country, die Waldreservate Hellshire Hills und Litchfield. 1992 wurde in Montego Bay der erste Marinepark Jamaikas mit einer Fläche von fast 15 km² errichtet. Das Schutzgebiet der Portland Bight wurde 1999 festgelegt. ^[55]

Das folgende Jahr wurde der Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park auf etwa 300 Quadratmeilen (780 km ² ) angelegt Wildnis, die Tausende von Baum- und Farnarten sowie seltene Tiere unterstützt.

Flora und Fauna

Jamaikas Klima ist tropisch und unterstützt vielfältige Ökosysteme mit einer Fülle von Pflanzen und Tieren.

Jamaikas Pflanzenwelt hat sich im Laufe der Jahrhunderte erheblich verändert. Als die Spanier 1494 ankamen, war das Land, abgesehen von kleinen landwirtschaftlichen Lichtungen, tief bewaldet. Die europäischen Siedler fällten die großen Holzbäume für Bau- und Schiffsvorräte ab und säuberten die Ebenen, Savannen und Berghänge für intensiven landwirtschaftlichen Anbau. Viele neue Pflanzen wurden eingeführt, darunter Zuckerrohr, Bananen und Zitrusbäume.

Heute sind in Jamaika jedoch 3.000 Arten einheimischer Blütenpflanzen (von denen über 1.000 endemisch und 200 Orchideenarten sind), Tausende von nicht blühenden Pflanzenarten und etwa 20 botanische Gärten beheimatet. einige von ihnen sind mehrere hundert Jahre alt. ^{[56] [57]}

Starkregengebiete enthalten auch Bestände aus Bambus, Farnen, Ebenholz, Mahagoni und Rosenholz. Entlang der südlichen und südwestlichen Küste befinden sich Kakteen und ähnliche Trockengebiete. Teile des Westens und Südwestens bestehen aus großen Wiesen mit verstreuten Baumbeständen.

Das für die Karibik typische jamaikanische Tierleben umfasst eine abwechslungsreiche Tierwelt mit vielen endemischen Arten, die nirgendwo sonst auf der Erde zu finden sind. Landsäugetiere sind, wie auch andere ozeanische Inseln, meist mehrere Fledermausarten, von denen mindestens drei endemische Arten nur im Cockpit Country zu finden sind, von denen eine gefährdet ist. Andere Fledermausarten sind Feigenfresser und Fledermäuse. Das einzige nicht auf Fledermäusen lebende Säugetier, das auf Jamaika existiert, ist die jamaikanische Hutia. Eingeführte Säugetiere wie Wildschweine und der kleine asiatische Mungo sind ebenfalls üblich. Jamaika ist auch die Heimat von etwa 50 Reptilienarten, ^[58] von denen die größte das amerikanische Krokodil ist; Es ist jedoch nur innerhalb des Black River und in einigen anderen Gebieten vorhanden. Eidechsen wie Anoles, Leguanas und Schlangen wie Rennfahrer und die jamaikanische Boa (die größte Schlange der Insel) sind in Gebieten wie dem Cockpit Country üblich. Keine der acht einheimischen Schlangenarten Jamaikas ist giftig. ^[59]

Jamaika beherbergt etwa 289 Vogelarten, von denen 27 endemisch sind (nirgendwo sonst auf der Welt), einschließlich der vom Aussterben bedrohten Schwarzen In Rechnung gestellte Papageien und die jamaikanische Amsel, die nur im Cockpit Country zu finden sind. Es ist auch die einheimische Heimat von zwei Arten von Kolibris, den Schwarzschnabel- und Rotschnabelströmern. Der Rotschnabel-Bach, lokal als "Arztvogel" bezeichnet, ist Jamaikas nationales Symbol. ^[60]

Eine Art von Süßwasserschildkröten ist auf Jamaika heimisch, der jamaikanische Schieber. Es ist nur auf Jamaika, Cat Island und einigen anderen Inseln der Bahamas zu finden. Darüber hinaus sind auf der Insel viele Arten von Fröschen verbreitet, insbesondere Baumfrösche. Vögel sind reichlich vorhanden und machen den Großteil der endemischen und einheimischen Wirbeltierarten aus. Schöne und exotische Vögel, wie der jamaikanische Vogel und der Arztvogel (der Nationalvogel), sind unter vielen anderen zu finden.

In jamaikanischen Gewässern gibt es beträchtliche Ressourcen an Süß- und Salzwasserfischen. ^[61] Die Hauptsorten von Salzwasserfischen sind Königfisch, Bock, Makrele, Wittling, Bonito und Thunfisch. Fische, die gelegentlich in Süßwasser- und Flussmündungsumgebungen eindringen, sind Snook, Rotbarsch, Mangrovenschnapper und Meeräschen. Fische, die den größten Teil ihres Lebens in Jamaikas Süßwasser verbringen, sind viele Arten von Lebendgebern, Killifish, Süßwasservögel, Meerbarbe und amerikanischer Aal. Tilapia wurde aus Afrika für die Aquakultur eingeführt und ist sehr verbreitet. In den Gewässern um Jamaika sind auch Delphine, Papageienfische und der vom Aussterben bedrohte Seekuh zu sehen. ^[62]

.

In Jamaika leben etwa 150 Schmetterlingsarten, darunter 35 einheimische Arten und 22 Unterarten. Es ist auch die Heimat des jamaikanischen Schwalbenschwanzes, des größten Schmetterlings der westlichen Hemisphäre. ^[63]

Leben unter Wasser

Ökosysteme der Korallenriffe sind wichtig, weil sie den Menschen eine Quelle des Lebensunterhalts, der Nahrung, der Erholung und des Schutzes bieten das Land, auf dem sie leben. ^[64] Jamaika ist für seine Entwicklung auf das Meer und sein Ökosystem angewiesen. Allerdings ist auch das Meeresleben in Jamaika betroffen. Es kann viele Faktoren geben, die dazu beitragen, dass das Meeresleben nicht die beste Gesundheit hat. Jamaikas geologischer Ursprung, topografische Merkmale und saisonbedingt hohe Regenfälle machen es anfällig für eine Reihe von Naturgefahren, die die Küsten- und Meeresumwelt beeinträchtigen können. Dazu gehören Sturmflut, Hangversagen (Erdrutsche), Erdbeben, Überschwemmungen und Wirbelstürme. ^[65] Die Korallenriffe im Negril Marine Park (NMP), Jamaika, sind nach Jahrzehnten intensiver Entwicklung zunehmend von Nährstoffverschmutzung und Makropalmenblüten betroffen ein wichtiges touristisches Ziel. ^[66] Ein anderer dieser Faktoren könnte Touristen einschließen, da Jamaika ein sehr touristischer Ort ist, auf den die Insel Menschen aus aller Welt hierher zieht. The Jamaican tourism industry accounts for 32% of total employment and 36% of the country’s GDP [2] and is largely based on the sun, sea and sand, the last two of these attributes being dependent on healthy coral reef ecosystems.^[64] Because of Jamaica's tourism, they have developed a study to see if the tourist would be willing to help financially to manage their marine ecosystem because Jamaica alone is unable to. The ocean connects all the countries all over the world, however, everyone and everything is affecting the flow and life in the ocean. Jamaica is a very touristy place specifically because of their beaches. If their oceans are not functioning at their best then the well-being of Jamaica and the people who live there will start to deteriorate. According to the OECD, oceans contribute $1.5 trillion annually in value-added to the overall economy.^[67] A developing country on an island will get the majority of their revenue from their ocean. Healthy oceans, coasts and freshwater ecosystems are crucial for economic growth and food production, but they are also fundamental to global efforts to mitigate climate change.^[67] Climate change also has an affect on the ocean and life within the ocean.

Pollution

Pollution occurs everywhere in which could cause damage. Pollution comes from run-off, sewage systems, and garbage. However, this typically all ends up in the ocean after there is rain or floods. Everything that ends up in the water changes the quality and balance of the ocean. Poor coastal water quality has adversely affected fisheries, tourism and mariculture, as well as undermining biological sustainability of the living resources of ocean and coastal habitats.^[65] Jamaica imports and exports many goods through their waters. Some of the imports that go into Jamaica include petroleum and petroleum products. Issues include accidents at sea; risk of spills through local and international transport of petroleum and petroleum products.^[65] Oil spills can disrupt the marine life because the chemicals that are being spilled that should not be there. Oil and water do not mix. Unfortunately oil spills is not the only form of pollution that occurs in Jamaica. Solid waste disposal mechanisms in Jamaica are currently inadequate.^[65] The solid waste gets into the water through rainfall forces. Solid waste is also harmful to wildlife, particularly birds, fish and turtles that feed at the surface of the water and mistake floating debris for food.^[65] For example, plastic can be caught around birds and turtles necks making it difficult to eat and breath as they begin to grow causing the plastic to get tighter around their necks. Pieces of plastic, metal, and glass can be mistaken for the food fish eat. Each Jamaican generates 1 kg (2 lbs) of waste per day...only 70% of this is collected by National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA)...the remaining 30% is either burnt or disposed of in gullies/waterways.^[68]

Policy

There are policies that are being put into place to help preserve the ocean and the life below water. The goal of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is to improve the quality of life of human communities who depend on coastal resources while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems.^[65] Developing a underdeveloped country can impact the oceans ecosystem because of all the construction that would be done to develop the country. Over-building, driven by powerful market forces as well as poverty among some sectors of the population, and destructive exploitation contribute to the decline of ocean and coastal resources.^[65] Developing practices that will contribute to the lives of the people but also to the life of the ocean and its ecosystem. Some of these practices include: Develop sustainable fisheries practices, ensure sustainable mariculture techniques and practices, sustainable management of shipping, and promote sustainable tourism practices.^[65] As for tourism, tourism is the number one source of foreign exchange earnings in Jamaica and, as such is vital to the national economy.^[65] Tourist typically go to countries unaware of issues and how they impact those issues. Tourist are not going to be used to living in a different style compared to their own country. Practices such as: provide sewage treatment facilities for all tourist areas, determine carrying capacity of the environment prior to planning tourism activities, provide alternative types of tourist activities can help to get desired results such as the development of alternative tourism which will reduce the current pressure on resources that support traditional tourism activities.^[65] A study was conducted to see how tourist could help with sustainable financing for ocean and coastal management in Jamaica. Instead of using tourist fees they would call them environmental fees. This study aims to inform the relevant stakeholders of the feasibility of implementing environmental fees as well as the likely impact of such revenue generating instruments on the current tourist visitation rates to the island.^[64] The development of a user fee system would help fund environmental management and protection. The results show that tourists have a high consumer surplus associated with a vacation in Jamaica, and have a significantly lower willingness to pay for a tourism tax when compared to an environmental tax. The findings of the study show that the “label” of the tax and as well as the respondent’s awareness of the institutional mechanisms for environmental protection and tourism are important to their decision framework.^[64] Tourist are more willing to pay for environmental fees rather than tourist tax fees. A tax high enough to fund for environmental management and protection but low enough to continue to bring tourist to Jamaica. It has been shows that if an environmental tax of $1 per person were introduced it would not cause a significant decline in visitation rates and would generate revenues of US$1.7M.^[64]

Demographics

Ethnic origins

Jamaica's population, 1961–2003

The Jamaican national motto is 'Out of Many One People', based on the population's multiracial roots. The motto is represented on the Coat of Arms, showing a male and female member of the Taino Indian tribe standing on either side of a shield which bears a red cross with five golden pineapples.^[69]

Most of Jamaica's population is of African or partially African descent with many being able to trace their origins to the Western and Central African countries of Ghana and Cameroon,^[70] as well as Europe^[71] and Asia.^[72] Like many other anglophone Caribbean countries, many Jamaicans with mixed ancestry self-report as black.^[73] The prominent black nationalist Marcus Garvey is possibly the most famous Jamaican who was of full African heritage. Other famous full African Jamaicans include the Maroons of Accompong and other settlements, who were the descendants of escaped slaves that introduced the jerk cooking technique to the world. Many Maroons continue to have their own traditions and speak their own language, known locally as 'Kromanti'.

It is extremely uncommon for Jamaicans to identify themselves by race as is prominent in countries like the United States where the race of a person is hyphenated with the ethnicity proceeding the nationality, for example, the American usage of the terms, White-American or African-American. Due to its history, most Jamaicans describe their nationality as a race in and of itself where they identify as simply being 'Jamaican' regardless of ethnicity.^[74][73]

Asians form the second-largest group and include Indo-Jamaicans and Chinese Jamaicans.^[75] Most are descended from indentured workers brought by the British colonial government to fill labour shortages following the abolition of slavery in 1838. Prominent Indian Jamaicans include jockey Shaun Bridgmohan, who was the first Jamaican in the Kentucky Derby, NBC Nightly News journalist Lester Holt, and Miss Jamaica World and Miss Universe winner Yendi Phillips. The southwestern parish of Westmoreland is famous for its large population of Indo-Jamaicans.^[76]

Along with their Indian counterparts, Chinese Jamaicans have also played an integral part in Jamaica's community and history. Prominent descendants of this group include Canadian billionaire investor Michael Lee-Chin, supermodels Naomi Campbell and Tyson Beckford, and VP Records founder Vincent "Randy" Chin.

There are about 20,000 Jamaicans who have Lebanese ancestry.^[77] Most were Christian immigrants who fled the Ottoman occupation in the early 19th century. Eventually, their descendants along with Syrian Jamaicans (Bob Marley), became very successful politicians and businessmen. Notable Jamaicans from this group include former Jamaican Prime Minister Edward Seaga, Jamaican politician and former Miss World Lisa Hanna, Jamaican politicians Edward Zacca and Shahine Robinson, and hotelier Abraham Elias Issa.

In 1835, Lord Seaford gave 500 acres of his 10,000 acre estate in Westmoreland for the Seaford Town German settlement. Today most of the town's descendants are of full or partial German descent.^[78]

The first wave of English immigrants arrived to the island 1655, after conquering the Spanish. Today, their descendants represent some of Jamaica's most celebrated representatives. Prominent descendants from this group include former American Governor of New York David Paterson, Sandals Hotels owner Gordon Butch Stewart, United States Presidential Advisor and "mother" of the Pell Grant Lois Rice, and former United States National Security Advisor and Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice.

The first Irish immigrants came to Jamaica in the 1600s as war prisoners and later, indentured labor. Despite their very sordid arrival, their descendants became very accomplished men. Their descendants include two of Jamaica's National Heros: Prime Ministers Michael Manley and Alexander Bustamante.

Along with the English and the Irish, the Scots are another group that has made a significant impact on the island. According to the Scotland Herald newspaper, Jamaica has more Campbell surnames, than the population of Scotland itself and it also has the highest percentage of Scottish surnames outside of Scotland. Scottish surnames account to about 60% of the surnames in the Jamaican phone books. The first Jamaican inhabitants from Scotland were exiled "rebels". Later, they would be followed by ambitious businessmen who spent time between their great country estates in Scotland and the island. As a result, many of the slave owning plantations on the island were owned by Scottish men and it resulted in the high occurrence of Jamaica's coloured (mixed-race) population. High immigration from Scotland continued until well after independence. Today, notable Scottish-Jamaicans include Jamaican businessman John Pringle, former American Secretary of State Colin Powell, and American actress Kerry Washington.^[79]

There is also a significant Portuguese Jamaican population that is predominantly of Sephardic Jewish heritage that is primarily located in the Saint Elizabeth Parish in the southwestern part of Jamaica. The first Jews arrived as explorers from Spain in the 15th century after being forced to convert to Christianity or face death. Some (very few), became slave owners and even famous pirates.^[80] Judaism eventually became very influential in Jamaica and can be seen today with many Jewish cemeteries around the country. Many visitors to the island are often surprised to find many "dark" colored (mixed-race) Jamaicans with Jewish surnames. During the Holocaust, Jamaica became a refuge for Jews who faced expulsion. Famous Jewish descendants include the dancehall artist Sean Paul, former record producer and founder of Island Records Chris Blackwell, and Jacob De Cordova who was the founder of the Jamaica Gleaner newspaper^[81][82][83]

In recent years, immigration has increased, coming mainly from China, Haiti, Cuba, Colombia, and Latin America; 20,000 Latin Americans reside in Jamaica.^{[84][citation needed]} The Jamaican government is currently considering making Spanish Jamaica's second official language. The move has been encouraged by Spain's Secretary for International Cooperation, Fernando Garcia Casas, who thinks that "...bilateral cooperation between (his) country and Jamaica could be greatly increased by encouraging greater use of the Spanish language there".^[85][86]

About 7,000 Americans also reside in Jamaica.^{[citation needed]}

American fashion icon and philanthropist Ralph Lauren has been a resident of the island for almost 30 years. His estate, Round Hill Hotel and Villas, is a popular tourist destination and hotel, that was the location of American President John F. Kennedy's honeymoon after marrying his wife Jacqueline. It has also hosted several celebrities and politicians from around the world and has been the inspiration for many of his home and fashion collections, including the Spring 2018 collection that was officially presented at New York Fashion Week. Lauren's wife, Ricky, is also a popular socialite among locals who has written a book about the island entitled, "My Home".^{[87][88][89][90][91]} Other American residents include philantropist Daisy Soros, Blackstone's Schwarzman family, the family of the late Lieutenant Governor of Delaware John W. Rollins, fashion designer Vanessa Noel, investor Guy Stuart, Edward and Patricia Falkenberg, and iHeart Media CEO Bob Pittman, all of whom hold annual charity events to support the island.^[92]

There are also many first-generation American, British and Canadians of Jamaican descent.^[93]

A study found that the average admixture on the island was 78.3% Sub-Saharan African, 16.0% European, and 5.7% East Asian.^[94]

Languages

Jamaica is regarded as a bilingual country, with two major languages in use by the population.^[95] The official language is English, which is "used in all domains of public life", including the government, the legal system, the media, and education. However, the primary spoken language is an English-based creole called Jamaican Patois (or Patwa). A 2007 survey by the Jamaican Language Unit found that 17.1 percent of the population were monolingual in Jamaican Standard English (JSE), 36.5 percent were monolingual in Patois, and 46.4 percent were bilingual, although earlier surveys had pointed to a greater degree of bilinguality (up to 90 percent).^[96] The Jamaican education system has only recently begun to offer formal instruction in Patois, while retaining JSE as the "official language of instruction".^[97]

Additionally, some Jamaicans use one or more of Jamaican Sign Language (JSL), American Sign Language (ASL) or the indigenous Jamaican Country Sign Language (Konchri Sain).^[98] Both JSL and ASL are rapidly replacing Konchri Sain for a variety of reasons.^[98]

Emigration

Many Jamaicans have emigrated to other countries, especially to the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. In the case of the United States, about 20,000 Jamaicans per year are granted permanent residence.^[99] The great number of Jamaicans living abroad has become known as the Jamaican diaspora. There has also been emigration of Jamaicans to Cuba.^[100] The scale of emigration has been widespread and similar to other Caribbean entities such as Puerto Rico, Guyana, and The Bahamas. It was estimated in 2004 that up to 2.5 million Jamaicans and Jamaican descendants live abroad.^[101]

Jamaicans in the United Kingdom number an estimated 800,000 making them by far the country's largest African-Caribbean group. Large-scale migration from Jamaica to the UK occurred primarily in the 1950s and 1960s (when the country was still under British rule). Jamaican communities exist in most large UK cities.^[102] Concentrations of expatriate Jamaicans are quite considerable in numerous cities in the United States, including New York City, Buffalo, the Miami metro area, Atlanta, Chicago, Orlando, Tampa, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Hartford, Providence and Los Angeles. In Canada, the Jamaican population is centred in Toronto, and there are smaller communities in cities such as Hamilton, Montreal, Winnipeg, Vancouver and Ottawa.

Crime

When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, the murder rate was 3.9 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the lowest in the world. By 2009, the rate was 62 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest in the world.^[103] Jamaica has had one of the highest murder rates in the world for many years, according to UN estimates.^[104][105] Some areas of Jamaica, particularly cities such as Kingston, experience high levels of crime and violence.^[106] Some Jamaicans are hostile towards LGBT and intersex people,^[107] and there have been reported cases of mob attacks against gay people.^{[108][109][110]} Male homosexuality is illegal and punishable by prison time^[111]although it is not enforced.^{[citation needed]}

However, there were 1,682 reported murders in 2009 and 1,428 in 2010.^{[citation needed]} Since 2011 the murder rate continued to fall following the downward trend in 2010 after a strategic programme was launched.^[112] In 2012, the Ministry of National Security reported a 30 percent decrease in murders.^[113] Nevertheless, in 2017 murders rose by 22% over the previous year.^[114]

Major cities

Largest cities or towns in Jamaica
	Rank	Name	Parish	Pop.
1	Kingston	Kingston	661,862	Spanish Town Montego Bay
	2	Portmore	Saint Catherine		182,153
	3	Spanish Town	Saint Catherine		147,152
	4	Montego Bay	Saint James		110,115
	5	May Pen	Clarendon		61,548
	6	Mandeville	Manchester		49,695
	7	Old Harbour	Saint Catherine		28,912
	8	Savanna-la-Mar	Westmoreland		22,633
	9	Ocho Rios	Saint Ann		16,671
	10	Linstead	Saint Catherine		15,231

Religion

Christianity is the largest religion practised in Jamaica. Protestants form the majority of approximately 70% in the country, and Roman Catholics are a minority with 2% of the population. According to the 2001 census, the country's largest Protestant denominations are the Church of God (24%), Seventh-day Adventist Church (11%), Pentecostal (10%), Baptist (7%), Anglican (4%), United Church (2%), Methodist (2%), Moravian (1%) and Plymouth Brethren (1%)^[115] The Christian faith gained acceptance as British Christian abolitionists and Baptist missionaries joined educated former slaves in the struggle against slavery.^[116]

The Rastafari movement has 29,026 adherents, according to the 2011 census, with 25,325 Rastafarian males and 3,701 Rastafarian females.^[115] Other religions in Jamaica include Jehovah's Witnesses (2% population), the Bahá'í faith, which counts perhaps 8,000 adherents^[117] and 21 Local Spiritual Assemblies,^[118]Buddhism, and Hinduism. The Hindu Diwali festival is celebrated yearly among the Indo-Jamaican community.^[119][120]

There is also a small population of Jews, about 200, who describe themselves as Liberal-Conservative.^[121] The first Jews in Jamaica trace their roots back to early 15th-century Spain and Portugal.^[122]Kahal Kadosh Shaare Shalom, also known as the United Congregation of Israelites, is a historic synagogue located in the city of Kingston. Originally built in 1912, it is the official and only Jewish place of worship left on the island. The once abundant Jewish population has voluntarily converted to Christianity over time. Shaare Shalom is one of the few synagogues in the world that contains sand covered floors and is a popular tourist destination.^[123][124]

On March 23, 2002, Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan visited Shaare Shalom, his first visit to a synagogue,^[125] in an attempt to repair his controversial relationship with the Jewish community.^[126] Farrakhan was accepted to speak at Shaare Shalom in the native country of his father, after being rejected to appear at American synagogues, many of whom had fear of sending the wrong signal to the Jewish community.^[126][125]

Other small groups include Muslims, who claim 5,000 adherents,^[115] The Muslim holidays of Ashura, known locally as Hussay or Hosay and Eid, have been celebrated throughout the island for hundreds of years. In the past, every plantation in each parish celebrated Hosay. Today it has been called an Indian carnival and is perhaps most well known in Clarendon where it is celebrated each August. People of all religions attend the event, showing mutual respect.^[127][120]

A historic Ashura celebration in Jamaica, which is known locally as Hussay or Hosay.

There is also a small community of Mormons.^[128]

Culture

Marcus Garvey, father of the Back to Africa Movement and Jamaica's first National Hero

Bob Marley, the most famous reggae artist from Jamaica

Music

Though a small nation, Jamaican culture has a strong global presence. The musical genres reggae, ska, mento, rocksteady, dub, and, more recently, dancehall and ragga all originated in the island's vibrant, popular urban recording industry. Jamaica also played an important role in the development of punk rock, through reggae and ska. Reggae has also influenced American rap music, as they share roots as rhythmic, African styles of music. Some rappers, such as The Notorious B.I.G., Busta Rhymes, and Heavy D, are of Jamaican descent. Internationally known reggae musician Bob Marley was also Jamaican.

Many other internationally known artists were born in Jamaica, including Millie Small, Lee "Scratch" Perry, Gregory Isaacs, Half Pint, Protoje, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, Big Youth, Jimmy Cliff, Dennis Brown, Desmond Dekker, Beres Hammond, Beenie Man, Shaggy, Grace Jones, Shabba Ranks, Super Cat, Buju Banton, Sean Paul, I Wayne, Bounty Killer and many others. Bands that came from Jamaica include Black Uhuru, Third World Band, Inner Circle, Chalice Reggae Band, Culture, Fab Five and Morgan Heritage. The genre jungle emerged from London's Jamaican diaspora. The birth of hip-hop in New York City owed much to the city's Jamaican community.

Literature

The journalist and author H. G. de Lisser (1878–1944) used his native country as the setting for his many novels. Born in Falmouth, Jamaica, de Lisser worked as a reporter for the Jamaica Times at a young age and in 1920 began publishing the magazine Planters' Punch. The White Witch of Rosehall is one of his better-known novels. He was named Honorary President of the Jamaican Press Association; he worked throughout his professional career to promote the Jamaican sugar industry.

Roger Mais (1905 – 1955), a journalist, poet, and playwright wrote many short stories, plays, and novels, including The Hills Were Joyful Together (1953), Brother Man (1954), and Black Lightning (1955).

Ian Fleming (1908-1964), who had a home in Jamaica where he spent considerable time, repeatedly used the island as a setting in his James Bond novels, including Live and Let DieDoctor No"For Your Eyes Only", The Man with the Golden Gunand Octopussy and The Living Daylights. In addition, James Bond uses a Jamaica-based cover in Casino Royale. So far, the only James Bond film adaptation to have been set in Jamaica is Doctor No. Filming for the fictional island of San Monique in Live and Let Die took place in Jamaica.

Marlon James (1970), novelist has published three novels: John Crow's Devil (2005), The Book of Night Women (2009) and A Brief History of Seven Killings (2014), winner of the 2015 Man Booker Prize.

Film

The cinema actor Errol Flynn lived with his third wife Patrice Wymore in Port Antonio in the 1950s. He helped develop tourism to this area, popularising trips down rivers on bamboo rafts.^[129]

Jamaica has a history in the film industry dating from the early 1960s. A look at delinquent youth in Jamaica is presented in the 1970s musical crime film The Harder They Comestarring Jimmy Cliff as a frustrated (and psychopathic) reggae musician who descends into a murderous crime spree. The American film Cocktail (1988), starring Tom Cruise, is one of the more popular films to depict Jamaica. Another popular Jamaican-based film is the 1993 Disney comedy Cool Runningswhich is loosely based on the true story of Jamaica's first bobsled team trying to make it in the Winter Olympics.

Cuisine

The island is famous for its Jamaican jerk spice, curries and rice and peas which is integral to Jamaican cuisine. Jamaica is also home to Red Stripe beer and Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee.

National symbols

(From the Jamaica Information Service)^[130]

Jamaica motto on a building at Papine High School in Kingston, Jamaica.

Sport

Sport is an integral part of national life in Jamaica and the island's athletes tend to perform to a standard well above what might ordinarily be expected of such a small country.^[131] While the most popular local sport is cricket, on the international stage Jamaicans have tended to do particularly well at track and field athletics.^[131][132]

Jamaica has produced some of the world's most famous cricketers, including George Headley, Courtney Walsh, and Michael Holding.^[133] The country was one of the venues of 2007 Cricket World Cup and the West Indies cricket team is one of 10 ICC full member teams that participate in international Test cricket.^[134] The Jamaica national cricket team competes regionally, and also provides players for the West Indies team. Sabina Park is the only Test venue in the island, but the Greenfield Stadium is also used for cricket.^[135][136]Chris Gayle is the most renowned batsman from Jamaica currently representing the West Indies cricket team.

Since independence Jamaica has consistently produced world class athletes in track and field.^[131] In Jamaica involvement in athletics begins at a very young age and most high schools maintain rigorous athletics programs with their top athletes competing in national competitions (most notably the VMBS Girls and Boys Athletics Championships) and international meets (most notably the Penn Relays). In Jamaica it is not uncommon for young athletes to attain press coverage and national fame long before they arrive on the international athletics stage.

Over the past six decades Jamaica has produced dozens of world class sprinters including Olympic and World Champion Usain Bolt, world record holder in the 100m for men at 9.58s, and 200m for men at 19.19s. Other noteworthy Jamaican sprinters include Arthur Wint, the first Jamaican Olympic gold medalist; Donald Quarrie, Elaine Thompson double Olympic champion from Rio 2016 in the 100m and 200m, Olympic Champion and former 200m world record holder; Roy Anthony Bridge, part of the International Olympic Committee; Merlene Ottey; Delloreen Ennis-London; Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, the former World and two time Olympic 100m Champion; Kerron Stewart; Aleen Bailey; Juliet Cuthbert; three-time Olympic gold medalist; Veronica Campbell-Brown; Sherone Simpson; Brigitte Foster-Hylton; Yohan Blake; Herb McKenley; George Rhoden, Olympic gold medalist; Deon Hemmings, Olympic gold medalist; as well as Asafa Powell, former 100m world record holder and 2x 100m Olympic finalist and gold medal winner in the men's 2008 Olympic 4 × 100 m. American Olympic winner Sanya Richards-Ross was also born in Jamaica.

Jamaica has also produced several world class amateur and professional boxers including Trevor Berbick and Mike McCallum. First-generation Jamaican athletes have continued to make a significant impact on the sport internationally, especially in the United Kingdom where the list of top British boxers born in Jamaica or of Jamaican parents includes Lloyd Honeyghan, Chris Eubank, Audley Harrison, David Haye, Lennox Lewis and Frank Bruno, Donovan "Razor" Ruddock, Mike Tyson, and Floyd Mayweather Jr., whose maternal grandfather is Jamaican.^[137]

Association football and horse-racing are other popular sports in Jamaica. The national football team qualified for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Horse racing was Jamaica's first sport. It was brought in the 1700s by British immigrants to satisfy their longing for their favorite pastime back at home. During slavery, the Afro-Jamaican slaves were considered the best horse jockeys. Today, horse racing provides jobs for about 20,000 people including horse breeders, groomers, and trainers. Also, several Jamaicans are known internationally for their success in horse racing including Richard DePass, who once held the Guinness Book of World Records for the most wins in a day, Canadian awards winner George HoSang, and American award winners Charlie Hussey, Andrew Ramgeet, and Barrington Harvey. Also, there are hundreds of Jamaicans who are employed in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom as exercise riders and groomers.^[138]

Race car driving is also a popular sport in Jamaica with several car racing tracks and racing associations across the country.^[139]

The Jamaica national bobsled team was once a serious contender in the Winter Olympics, beating many well-established teams. Chess and basketball are widely played in Jamaica and are supported by the Jamaica Chess Federation (JCF) and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF), respectively. Netball is also very popular on the island, with the Jamaica national netball team called The Sunshine Girls consistently ranking in the top five in the world.^[140]

Rugby league has been played in Jamaica since 2006.^[141]
The Jamaica national rugby league team is made up of players who play in Jamaica and from UK based professional and semi professional clubs (notably in the Super League and Championship). In November 2018 for the first time ever, the Jamaican rugby league team qualified for the Rugby League World Cup after defeating the USA & Canada. Jamaica will play in the 2021 Rugby League World Cup in England.^[142]

According to ESPN, the highest paid Jamaican professional athlete in 2011 was Justin Masterson, starting pitcher for the Cleveland Indians.^[143]

Education

The emancipation of the slaves heralded in the establishment of the Jamaican education system for the masses. Prior to emancipation there were few schools for educating locals. Many sent their children off to England to access quality education.

After emancipation the West Indian Commission granted a sum of money to establish Elementary Schools, now known as All Age Schools. Most of these schools were established by the churches.^[144] This was the genesis of the modern Jamaican school system.

Presently the following categories of schools exist:

• Early childhood – Basic, infant and privately operated pre-school. Age cohort: 2 – 5 years.


• Primary – Publicly and privately owned (privately owned being called preparatory schools). Ages 3 – 12 years.


• Secondary – Publicly and privately owned. Ages 10 – 19 years. The high schools in Jamaica may be either single-sex or co-educational institutions, and many schools follow the traditional English grammar school model used throughout the British West Indies.


• Tertiary – Community colleges; teachers' colleges, with the Mico Teachers' College (now The MICO University College) being the oldest, founded in 1836; the Shortwood Teachers' College (which was once an all-female teacher training institution); vocational training centres, colleges and universities, publicly and privately owned. There are five local universities: the University of the West Indies (Mona Campus); the University of Technology, Jamaica, formerly The College of Art Science and Technology (CAST); the Northern Caribbean University, formerly West Indies College; the University College of The Caribbean; and the International University of the Caribbean.

Additionally, there are many community and teacher training colleges.

Education is free from the early childhood to secondary levels. There are also opportunities for those who cannot afford further education in the vocational arena, through the Human Employment and Resource Training-National Training Agency (HEART Trust-NTA) programme,^[145] which is opened to all working age national population^[146] and through an extensive scholarship network for the various universities.

Students are taught Spanish in school from the primary level upwards; about 40–45% of educated people in Jamaica knows some form of Spanish.

Economy

A beach in Negril with a hotel and restaurant

Jamaica is a mixed economy with both state enterprises and private sector businesses. Major sectors of the Jamaican economy include agriculture, mining, manufacturing, tourism, and financial and insurance services. Tourism and mining are the leading earners of foreign exchange. Half the Jamaican economy relies on services, with half of its income coming from services such as tourism. An estimated 1.3 million foreign tourists visit Jamaica every year.^[147]

Supported by multilateral financial institutions, Jamaica has, since the early 1980s, sought to implement structural reforms aimed at fostering private sector activity and increasing the role of market forces in resource allocation. Since 1991, the government has followed a programme of economic liberalisation and stabilisation by removing exchange controls, floating the exchange rate, cutting tariffs, stabilising the Jamaican currency, reducing inflation and removing restrictions on foreign investment. Emphasis has been placed on maintaining strict fiscal discipline, greater openness to trade and financial flows, market liberalisation and reduction in the size of government. During this period, a large share of the economy was returned to private sector ownership through divestment and privatisation programmes.

The macroeconomic stabilisation programme introduced in 1991, which focused on tight fiscal and monetary policies, has contributed to a controlled reduction in the rate of inflation. The annual inflation rate decreased from a high of 80.2% in 1991 to 7.9% in 1998. Inflation for FY1998/99 was 6.2% compared to 7.2% in the corresponding period in CUU1997/98. The Government of Jamaica remains committed to lowering inflation, with a long-term objective of bringing it in line with that of its major trading partners.

After a period of steady growth from 1985 to 1995, real GDP decreased by 1.8% and 2.4% in 1996 and 1997, respectively. The decrease in GDP in 1996 and 1997 was largely due to significant problems in the financial sector and, in 1997, a severe island-wide drought (the worst in 70 years) that drastically reduced agricultural production. In 1997, nominal GDP was approximately J$220,556.2 million (US$6,198.9 million based on the average annual exchange rate of the period).

The economy in 1997 was marked by low levels of import growth, high levels of private capital inflows and relative stability in the foreign exchange market.

Recent economic performance shows the Jamaican economy is recovering. Agricultural production, an important engine of growth increased 15.3% in third quarter of 1998 compared to the corresponding period in 1997, signaling the first positive growth rate in the sector since January 1997. Bauxite and alumina production increased 5.5% from January to December 1998, compared to the corresponding period in 1997. January's bauxite production recorded a 7.1% increase relative to January 1998 and continued expansion of alumina production through 2009 is planned by Alcoa.^[148] Jamaica is the fifth largest exporter of bauxite in the world, after Australia, China, Brazil and Guinea. Tourism, which is the largest foreign exchange earner, showed improvement as well. In the third quarter of 1998, growth in tourist arrivals accelerated with an overall increase of 8.5% in tourism earnings in 1998 when compared to the corresponding period in 1997. Jamaica's agricultural exports are sugar, bananas, coffee, rum, and yams.

Jamaica has a wide variety of industrial and commercial activities. The aviation industry is able to perform most routine aircraft maintenance, except for heavy structural repairs. There is a considerable amount of technical support for transport and agricultural aviation. Jamaica has a considerable amount of industrial engineering, light manufacturing, including metal fabrication, metal roofing, and furniture manufacturing. Food and beverage processing, glassware manufacturing, software and data processing, printing and publishing, insurance underwriting, music and recording, and advanced education activities can be found in the larger urban areas. The Jamaican construction industry is entirely self-sufficient, with professional technical standards and guidance.^[149]

Since the first quarter of 2006, the economy of Jamaica has undergone a period of staunch growth. With inflation for the 2006 calendar year down to 6.0% and unemployment down to 8.9%, the nominal GDP grew by an unprecedented 2.9%.^[150] An investment programme in island transportation and utility infrastructure and gains in the tourism, mining, and service sectors all contributed this figure. All projections for 2007 show an even higher potential for economic growth with all estimates over 3.0% and hampered only by urban crime and public policies.

In 2006, Jamaica became part of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) as one of the pioneering members.

The global economic downturn had a significant impact on the Jamaican economy for the years 2007 to 2009, resulting in negative economic growth. The government implemented a new Debt Management Initiative, the Jamaica Debt Exchange (JDX) on 14 January 2010. The initiative would see holders of Government of Jamaica (GOJ) bonds returning the high interest earning instruments for bonds with lower yields and longer maturities. The offer was taken up by over 95% of local financial institutions and was deemed a success by the government.

Owing to the success of the JDX program, the Bruce Golding-led government was successful in entering into a borrowing arrangement with the IMF on 4 February 2010 for the amount of US$1.27b. The loan agreement is for a period of three years.^[151]

In April 2014, the Governments of Jamaica and China signed the preliminary agreements for the first phase of the Jamaican Logistics Hub (JLH) – the initiative that aims to position Kingston as the fourth node in the global logistics chain, joining Rotterdam, Dubai and Singapore, and serving the Americas.^[152] The Project, when completed, is expected to provide many jobs for Jamaicans, Economic Zones for multinational companies^[153] and much needed economic growth to alleviate the country's heavy debt-to-GDP ratio. Strict adherence to the IMF's refinancing programme and preparations for the JLH has favourably affected Jamaica's credit rating and outlook from the three biggest rating agencies.

Infrastructure

Transport

Halfway Tree Transport Center, Kingston

The transport infrastructure in Jamaica consists of roadways, railways and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport system.

Roadways

The Jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres (13,000 mi) of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres (9,300 mi) is paved.^[1] The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres (21 mi) of freeway.

Railways

Railways in Jamaica no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 272 kilometres (169 mi) of railway found in Jamaica, only 57 kilometres (35 mi) remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite.^[1]

On 13 April 2011, limited passenger service was resumed between May Pen, Spanish Town and Linstead.

Air transport

A US Airways aircraft landing at Montego Bay (2013)

Norman Manley International Airport

There are three international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern and air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in Kingston; Ian Fleming International Airport in Boscobel, Saint Mary Parish; and the island's largest and busiest airport, Sir Donald Sangster International Airport in the resort city of Montego Bay. Manley and Sangster International airports are home to the country's national airline, Air Jamaica. In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, and Negril, which cater to internal flights only. Many other small, rural centres are served by private fields on sugar estates or bauxite mines.

Ports, shipping and lighthouses

Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives high container traffic. The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as that which is projected in coming years.^[154] Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products.

There are several other ports positioned around the island, including Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon, Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth, Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay, Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios, and Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio.

To aid the navigation of shipping, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses.

Energy

Jamaica depends on petroleum imports to satisfy its national energy needs.^[1] Many test sites have been explored for oil, but no commercially viable quantities have been found.^[155] The most convenient sources of imported oil and motor fuels (diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel) are from Mexico and Venezuela.

Jamaica's electrical power is produced by diesel (bunker oil) generators located in Old Harbour. Other smaller power stations (most owned by the Jamaica Public Service Company,^[156] the island's electricity provider) support the island's electrical grid including the Hunts Bay Power Station, the Bogue Power Station, the Rockfort Power Station and small hydroelectric plants on the White River, Rio Bueno, Morant River, Black River (Maggotty) and Roaring River.^[157] A wind farm, owned by the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, was established at Wigton, Manchester.^[158]

Jamaica has successfully operated a SLOWPOKE-2 nuclear reactor of 20 kW capacity since the early 1980s, but there are no plans to expand nuclear power at present.^[159]

Jamaica imports approximately 80,000 barrels (13,000 m³) of oil energy products per day,^[155] including asphalt and lubrication products. Just 20% of imported fuels are used for road transportation, the rest being used by the bauxite industry, electricity generation, and aviation. 30,000 barrels/day of crude imports are processed into various motor fuels and asphalt by the Petrojam Refinery in Kingston.^[160]

Jamaica produces enormous quantities of drinking alcohol (at least 5% water content), most of which appears to be consumed as beverages, and none used as motor fuel. Facilities exist to refine hydrous ethanol feedstock into anhydrous ethanol (0% water content), but as of 2007, the process appeared to be uneconomic and the production plant was idle.^[161]

Communication

Jamaica has a fully digital telephone communication system with a mobile penetration of over 95%.^[162]

The country's two mobile operators – FLOW Jamaica (formerly LIME, bMobile and Cable and Wireless Jamaica) and Digicel Jamaica have spent millions in network upgrades and expansion. The newest operator, Digicel was granted a licence in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent FLOW (then Cable and Wireless Jamaica) monopoly. Digicel opted for the more widely used GSM wireless system, while a past operator, Oceanic (which became Claro Jamaica and later merged with Digicel Jamaica in 2011) opted for the CDMA standard. FLOW (formerly "LIME" – pre-Columbus Communications merger) which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM in 2002, decommissioned TDMA in 2006 and only utilised that standard until 2009 when LIME launched its 3G network.^[163] Both operators currently provide islandwide coverage with HSPA+ (3G) technology. Currently, only Digicel offers LTE to its customers^[164] whereas FLOW Jamaica has committed to launching LTE in the cities of Kingston and Montego Bay, places where Digicel's LTE network is currently only found in, in short order.

A new entrant to the Jamaican communications market, Flow Jamaica, laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States. This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica to the rest of the world to four. Cable and Wireless Communications (parent company of LIME) acquired the company in late 2014 and replaced their brand LIME with FLOW.^[165]FLOW Jamaica currently has the most broadband and cable subscribers on the island and also has 1 million mobile subscribers,^[166] second to Digicel (which had, at its peak, over 2 million mobile subscriptions on its network).

Digicel entered the broadband market in 2010 by offering WiMAX broadband,^[167] capable of up to 6 Mbit/s per subscriber. To further their broadband share post-LIME/FLOW merger in 2014, the company introduced a new broadband service called Digicel Play,^[168] which is Jamaica's second FTTH offering (after LIME's deployment in selected communities in 2011^[169]). It is currently only available in the parishes of Kingston, Portmore and St. Andrew. It offers speeds of up to 200 Mbit/s down, 100 Mbit/s up via a pure fibre optic network. Digicel's competitor, FLOW Jamaica, has a network consisting of ADSL, Coaxial and Fibre to the Home (inherited from LIME) and only offers speeds up to 100 Mbit/s. FLOW has committed to expanding its Fibre offering to more areas in order to combat Digicel's entrance into the market.

It was announced that the Office and Utilities Regulations (OUR), Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining (MSTEM) and the Spectrum Management Authority (SMA) have given approval for another mobile operator licence in January 2016.^[170] The identity of this entrant was ascertained on May 20, 2016, when the Jamaican Government named the new carrier as Symbiote Investments Limited operating under the name Caricel.^[171] The company will focus on 4G LTE data offerings and will first go live in the Kingston Metropolitan Area and will expand to the rest of Jamaica thereafter.

See also

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Further reading

• Ahmed, Faiz (2008). The Development Path Taken by Jamaica: A brief account of the islands natural-history, economic policies, and social conditions (PDF). (pp. 45–83)


• Arbell, Mordehay (2000). The Portuguese Jews of Jamaica. Canoe Press. ISBN 978-976-8125-69-9.


• Ammar, N. "From Whence they came". Jamaica Journal.


• Bahadur, Gaiutra. Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture. The University of Chicago (2014), ISBN 978-0-226-21138-1


• Chapman, Valentine Jackson (1961). The marine algae of Jamaica: Myxophyceae and Chlorophyceae.


• Chapman, Valentine Jackson (1963). The marine Algae of Jamaica: Part II: Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.


• Hall, D. "Bounties European Immigration with Special Reference of the German Settlement at Seaford Town, Parts 1 and 2". Jamaica Journal8, (4), 48–54 and 9 (1), 2–9.


• Issa, Suzanne (1994). Mr Jamaica, Abe Issa: a pictorial biography. S. Issa. ISBN 978-976-8091-69-7.


• Jacobs, H. P. (2003). Germany in Jamaica. Indian heritage in Jamaica. Jamaica Journal10, (2,3,4), 10–19,


• Mullally, R (2003). "'One Love' The Black Irish of Jamaica". Jamaica Journal. 42: 104–116.


• Parboosingh, I. S. "An Indo-Jamaica beginning". Jamaica Journal. 18 (3): 2–10, 12.


• Senior, Olive (2003). Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage. Twin Guinep Publishers. ISBN 978-976-8007-14-8.


• Sherlock, Philip Manderson; Bennett, Hazel (1998). The Story of the Jamaican People. Ian Randle Publishers. ISBN 978-1-55876-145-2.


• Thomson, Ian (2009). The Dead Yard: Tales of Modern Jamaica. Nation-Bücher. ISBN 978-0-571-22761-7.


• Williams, Joseph John (1932). Whence the "Black Irish" of Jamaica?. L. MacVeagh, Dial Press, Inc.


• The Gleaner. Seaford Town Advertising Feature. 14 August 2003, D7-8,

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