Homosexualität ist romantische Anziehungskraft, sexuelle Anziehungskraft oder sexuelles Verhalten zwischen Angehörigen des gleichen Geschlechts oder Geschlechts. Als sexuelle Orientierung ist Homosexualität für Menschen des gleichen Geschlechts "ein dauerhaftes Muster emotionaler, romantischer und / oder sexueller Anziehungskraft". Es bezieht sich auch auf das Identitätsgefühl einer Person, das auf diesen Attraktionen, verwandten Verhaltensweisen und der Mitgliedschaft in einer Gemeinschaft von anderen Personen beruht, die diese Attraktionen teilen. [1] [2]
Zusammen mit Bisexualität und Heterosexualität, Homosexualität ist eine der drei Hauptkategorien sexueller Orientierung innerhalb des heterosexuell-homosexuellen Kontinuums. [1] Die Wissenschaftler wissen nicht, was die sexuelle Orientierung eines Individuums bestimmt, aber sie vermuten, dass dies auf ein komplexes Zusammenspiel von genetischen, hormonellen und Umwelteinflüssen zurückzuführen ist [3] [4] [19650000] [19650000] [5] und betrachten es nicht als eine Wahl. [3] [4] [6] Sie favorisieren biologisch fundierte Theorien, [3] die auf genetische Faktoren, die frühe Umgebung des Uterus oder beides, die Einbeziehung genetischer und sozialer Faktoren hinweisen. [7] [19650000] [19650076] Hypothesen für die Auswirkungen des postnatalen sozialen Umfelds auf die sexuelle Orientierung sind jedoch insbesondere für Männer schwach. [9] Es gibt keine substantiellen Beweise dafür, dass Erziehung oder frühkindliche Erfahrungen eine Rolle in Bezug auf die sexuelle Orientierung spielen. [7] Während einige Leute glauben, dass homosexuelle Aktivitäten unnatürlich sind, hat die wissenschaftliche Forschung [10] gezeigt, dass Homosexualität eine normale und natürliche Variation der menschlichen Sexualität ist und an und für sich keine Quelle für negative psychologische Auswirkungen ist. [1] [11] Es gibt keine ausreichenden Beweise, um die Verwendung psychologischer Interventionen zur Änderung der sexuellen Orientierung zu unterstützen. [12]
Die häufigsten Ausdrücke für homosexuelle Menschen sind lesbisch für Frauen und gay . für Männer, aber gay bezieht sich häufig auch auf homosexuelle Frauen und Männer. Der Prozentsatz der Menschen, die schwul oder lesbisch sind, und der Anteil der Menschen, die in gleichgeschlechtlichen romantischen Beziehungen leben oder gleichgeschlechtliche sexuelle Erfahrungen gemacht haben, sind für Forscher aus verschiedenen Gründen schwierig einzuschätzen, darunter viele Schwule und Lesben nicht Offenes Identifizieren als solches aufgrund von Vorurteilen oder Diskriminierung wie Homophobie und Heterosexismus. [13] Homosexuelles Verhalten wurde auch in vielen nichtmenschlichen Tierarten dokumentiert. [14] [15] [16] [19650001] [17] [19650001] [196500003] Lesben sind in gleichgeschlechtlichen Beziehungen, obwohl nur in den 2010er Jahren Volkszählungsformen und politische Bedingungen ihre Sichtbarkeit und Aufzählung erleichtert haben. [19] Diese Beziehungen entsprechen heterosexuellen Beziehungen in wesentlichen psychologischen Aspekten. [2] Homosexuelle Beziehungen und Handlungen wurden in der aufgezeichneten Geschichte je nach ihrer Form und ihrer Kultur bewundert und verurteilt. [20] Seit dem Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts gibt es eine weltweite Bewegung in Richtung Freiheit und Gleichberechtigung für Schwule, einschließlich der Einführung einer Anti-Mobbing-Gesetzgebung zum Schutz von schwulen Kindern in der Schule, einer Gesetzgebung zur Sicherstellung der Nichtdiskriminierung und der gleichen Einsatzfähigkeit beim Militär Gleicher Zugang zur Gesundheitsfürsorge, Gleichberechtigungsfähigkeit und Elternschaft sowie die Schaffung einer Ehegleichheit.
Etymology
Das Wort homosexuell ist eine griechische und lateinische Hybride, wobei das erste Element aus dem griechischen ὁμός homos stammt, "gleich" (nicht mit dem Latein verwandt Homo sapiens "man", wie in Homo sapiens ]was sexuelle Handlungen und Zuneigungen zwischen Angehörigen des gleichen Geschlechts einschließlich Lesbianismus bedeutet. [21] [19650001] [22] Der erste bekannte Auftritt von homosexuellem in gedruckter Form wurde in einem deutschen Flugblatt von 1869 des in Österreich geborenen Schriftstellers Karl-Maria Kertbeny gefunden, der anonym veröffentlicht wurde, [23] und sich gegen einen preußischen Sodomiegesetz. [23] [24] Im Jahr 1886 verwendete der Psychiater Richard von Krafft-Ebing die Begriffe homosexuell und heterosexuell in seinem Buch Psychopathia Sexualis . Krafft-Ebings Buch war sowohl bei Laien als auch bei Ärzten so beliebt, dass die Ausdrücke "heterosexuell" und "homosexuell" zu den am weitesten verbreiteten Ausdrücken für die sexuelle Orientierung wurden. [25] [26] [26] Daher hat die heutige Verwendung des Begriffs seine Wurzeln in der breiteren Tradition der Persönlichkeitstaxonomie des 19. Jahrhunderts.
Viele moderne Styleguides in den USA empfehlen, homosexuell nicht als Substantiv zu verwenden, sondern gay man oder lesbisch . In ähnlicher Weise empfehlen einige, den Gebrauch von Homosexuellem vollständig zu vermeiden, da er eine negative klinische Vorgeschichte hat und das Wort sich nur auf das sexuelle Verhalten (im Gegensatz zu romantischen Gefühlen) bezieht und somit eine negative Konnotation hat. [27] Schwule und Lesben sind die häufigsten Alternativen. Die ersten Buchstaben werden häufig kombiniert, um den Initialismus LGBT (manchmal als GLBT geschrieben) zu schaffen, in dem sich B und T auf Bisexuelle und Transsexuelle beziehen.
Gay bezieht sich insbesondere auf männliche Homosexualität, [28] kann aber in einem weiteren Sinn verwendet werden, um sich auf alle LGBT-Menschen zu beziehen. Im Zusammenhang mit Sexualität bezieht sich lesbisch nur auf weibliche Homosexualität. Das Wort lesbian leitet sich vom Namen der griechischen Insel Lesbos ab, auf der der Dichter Sappho hauptsächlich über ihre emotionalen Beziehungen zu jungen Frauen schrieb. [29] [30]
Obwohl frühe Schriftsteller benutzten das Adjektiv homosexuell auch, um sich auf alle gleichgeschlechtlichen Zusammenhänge (z. B. eine Mädchenschule) zu beziehen. Heute wird der Begriff ausschließlich in Bezug auf sexuelle Anziehungskraft, Aktivität und Orientierung verwendet. Der Begriff homosocial wird jetzt verwendet, um gleichgeschlechtliche Kontexte zu beschreiben, die nicht spezifisch sexuell sind. Es gibt auch ein Wort, das sich auf gleichgeschlechtliche Liebe bezieht, Homophilie .
Einige Synonyme für gleichgeschlechtliche Anziehung oder sexuelle Aktivität schließen Männer ein, die Sex mit Männern haben oder MSM (in der medizinischen Gemeinschaft verwendet, wenn sie speziell über sexuelle Aktivitäten sprechen) und homoerotisch (in Bezug auf Kunstwerke) [31] [32] Die abwertenden Ausdrücke im Englischen umfassen queer fagot 19459025 ] Fee poof und homo . [33] [34] [35] [19469009] [19469009] [19456909] Seit den 1990er Jahren wurden einige von ihnen als positive Worte von schwulen Männern und Lesben zurückgefordert, wie bei der Verwendung von Queer Studies, Queer Theory und sogar der populären amerikanischen Fernsehsendung Queer Eye für den Hetero [37] Das Wort homo kommt in vielen anderen Sprachen vor, ohne die abwertenden Konnotationen, die es auf Englisch hat. [38] Wie bei ethnischen und rassischen Disziplinen kann der Missbrauch dieser Begriffe immer noch sehr anstößig sein. Der zulässige Verwendungsbereich dieser Begriffe hängt vom Kontext und vom Sprecher ab. [39] Umgekehrt gay ist ein Wort, das ursprünglich von homosexuellen Männern und Frauen als positiver, positiver Ausdruck (wie in der Befreiung von Homosexuellen und in den Rechten der Homosexuellen) angenommen wurde, [40] in weit verbreiteter pejorativer Verwendung gekommen unter Jugendlichen [41]
Die amerikanische LGBT-Rechteorganisation GLAAD rät den Medien, zu vermeiden, dass der Begriff homosexuell verwendet wird, um Homosexuelle oder gleichgeschlechtliche Beziehungen zu beschreiben, da der Begriff "häufig verwendet wird von anti-schwulen Extremisten, um Homosexuelle, Paare und Beziehungen zu verunglimpfen ". [42]
Geschichte
Die Einstellung der Gesellschaft gegenüber gleichgeschlechtlichen Beziehungen ist im Laufe der Zeit und an den verschiedenen Orten unterschiedlich, von allen Männern erwartet, dass sie sich gleichermaßen engagieren sexuelle Beziehungen, zur zufälligen Integration, durch Akzeptanz, die Praxis als eine geringfügige Sünde zu sehen, sie durch Strafverfolgungs- und Justizmechanismen zu unterdrücken und sie unter Todesstrafe zu verbieten.
In einer detaillierten Zusammenstellung von historischem und ethnographischem Material der vorindustriellen Kulturen wurde in 41% der 42 Kulturen eine starke Missbilligung der Homosexualität gemeldet, von 21% akzeptiert oder ignoriert, und 12% gaben kein solches Konzept an. Von 70 Ethnographien 59% gaben an, dass Homosexualität in der Häufigkeit abwesend oder selten war, und 41% gaben an, dass sie vorhanden oder nicht ungewöhnlich ist. " [43]
In Kulturen, die von den abrahamischen Religionen beeinflusst wurden, etablierten das Gesetz und die Kirche Sodomie als eine Verletzung des göttlichen Gesetzes oder ein Verbrechen gegen die Natur. Die Verurteilung des Analsex zwischen Männern ist jedoch älter als der christliche Glaube. Es war im antiken Griechenland häufig. "Unnatürlich" kann bis zu Platon zurückverfolgt werden. [44]
Viele historische Persönlichkeiten, darunter Sokrates, Lord Byron, Edward II und Hadrian, [45] hatten Begriffe wie schwul oder bisexuell beantragten sie; Einige Gelehrte, wie Michel Foucault, haben dies als riskant angesehen, die anachronistische Einführung einer zeitgenössischen Konstruktion von Sexualität, die ihrer Zeit fremd ist, [46] zu riskieren, obwohl andere dies in Frage stellen. [47]
In der Sozialwissenschaft gab es einen Streit zwischen "essentialistischen" und "konstruktiven" Ansichten von Homosexualität. Die Debatte trennt diejenigen, die glauben, dass sich Begriffe wie "schwul" und "gerade" auf objektive, kulturell unveränderliche Eigenschaften von Personen beziehen, von denen, die glauben, dass die von ihnen genannten Erfahrungen Artefakte einzigartiger kultureller und sozialer Prozesse sind. "Essentialists" glauben typischerweise, dass sexuelle Vorlieben von biologischen Kräften bestimmt werden, während "Konstrukteure" davon ausgehen, dass sexuelle Wünsche gelernt werden. [48] Der Wissenschaftsphilosoph Michael Ruse hat festgestellt, dass der sozialkonstruktive Ansatz, der von Foucault beeinflusst wird, auf einer selektiven Lektüre der historischen Aufzeichnungen beruht, die die Existenz homosexueller Menschen mit der Art und Weise ihrer Kennzeichnung oder Behandlung verwechseln. [49]
Afrika
Die erste Aufzeichnung eines möglichen homosexuellen Paares in der Geschichte wird allgemein als Khnumhotep und Niankhkhnum, ein altägyptisches männliches Paar, angesehen, das um 2400 v. Chr. Lebte. Das Paar wird in einer nussküssenden Position dargestellt, der intimsten Pose der ägyptischen Kunst, umgeben von Erben, die scheinbar ihre Erben sind. Die Anthropologen Stephen Murray und Will Roscoe berichteten, dass Frauen in Lesotho sozial sanktionierte "langfristige erotische Beziehungen" eingingen, die motsoalle genannt wurden. [50] Der Ethnologe EE Evans-Pritchard berichtete auch, dass männliche Azande-Krieger im Norden des Kongo regelmäßig junge männliche Liebhaber zwischen zwölf und zwanzig Jahren angriffen, die bei Haushaltsaufgaben halfen und mit ihren älteren Ehemännern an intercruralem Sex teilnahmen. [51] ]
Americas
Dance to the Berdache Sac und Fox Nation zeremonieller Tanz zur Feier der Zwei-Geist-Person. George Catlin (1796–1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
Unter den indigenen Völkern Amerikas vor der europäischen Kolonialisierung war eine häufige Form gleichgeschlechtlicher Sexualität die Figur des Zwei-Geist-Individuums. In der Regel wurde dieses Individuum früh im Leben erkannt. Die Eltern hatten die Wahl, den Weg zu gehen, und wenn das Kind die Rolle akzeptierte, lernte es in geeigneter Weise die Gewohnheiten des von ihm gewählten Geschlechts. Zwei-Geist-Individuen waren gewöhnlich Schamanen und wurden als über die gewöhnliche Schamanen hinausgehende Kräfte verehrt. Ihr Sexualleben war mit den gewöhnlichen Stammesmitgliedern des gleichen Geschlechts verbunden.
Homosexuelle und Transsexuelle waren auch in anderen lateinamerikanischen Kulturen vor der Eroberung, wie den Azteken, Mayas, Quechuas, Moches, Zapotecs und den Tupinambá von Brasilien, üblich. [19469025] ]
Die spanischen Eroberer waren entsetzt, als sie die Sodomie entdeckten, die offen zwischen einheimischen Völkern praktiziert wurde, und versuchten, sie zu vernichten, indem sie die 1945/1926 (in den Spaniern genannten) Berdaches unter ihrer Herrschaft schweren Strafen unterwerfen, einschließlich der Öffentlichkeit Hinrichtung, Verbrennung und Zerreißen von Hunden [54]
Vereinigte Staaten
1986 entschied der Oberste Gerichtshof der Vereinigten Staaten in Bowers gegen Hardwick dass ein Staat Die Sodomie konnte kriminalisiert werden, stürzte sich jedoch 2003 in Lawrence v. Texas (19459026) und legalisierte damit homosexuelle Aktivitäten in den gesamten Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika.
Die gleichgeschlechtliche Ehe in den Vereinigten Staaten wurde 2015 von einem Bundesstaat im Jahr 2004 auf alle fünfzig Bundesstaaten ausgeweitet, und zwar durch verschiedene Gerichtsurteile, staatliche Gesetze, direkte Volksabstimmungen (Abstimmungen und Initiativen) und Urteile des Bundesgerichts.
Ostasien
Eine Frau, die ein Paar männlicher Liebhaber ausspioniert. China, Qing-Dynastie.
In Ostasien wird seit der frühesten aufgezeichneten Geschichte auf gleichgeschlechtliche Liebe Bezug genommen.
Homosexualität in China, bekannt als Passions des Pfirsichs und verschiedener anderer Euphemismen, wird seit etwa 600 v. Chr. Aufgezeichnet. Homosexualität wurde in vielen berühmten Werken der chinesischen Literatur erwähnt. Die Fälle von gleichgeschlechtlicher Zuneigung und sexuellen Interaktionen, die im klassischen Roman Dream of the Red Chamber beschrieben werden, scheinen den gegenwärtigen Beobachtern ebenso vertraut zu sein wie gleichwertige Geschichten über Liebesromane zwischen heterosexuellen Menschen im selben Zeitraum. Der Konfuzianismus, in erster Linie eine soziale und politische Philosophie, konzentrierte sich wenig auf Sexualität, ob homosexuell oder heterosexuell. Literatur der Ming-Dynastie, wie Bian Er Chai (弁 而 釵 / 弁 而 钗), stellt homosexuelle Beziehungen zwischen Männern als angenehmer und "harmonischer" dar als heterosexuelle Beziehungen. [1945460028] ] Schriften aus der Liu-Song-Dynastie von Wang Shunu behaupteten, Homosexualität sei im späten 3. Jahrhundert so verbreitet wie Heterosexualität. [56]
Die Opposition gegen Homosexualität in China stammt aus der mittelalterlichen Tang-Dynastie (618–907) 19459100 [57] aber erst durch die Verwestlichung der späten Qing-Dynastie und der Republik China voll etabliert. [58]
South Asien
Die Laws of Manu erwähnt ein "drittes Geschlecht", dessen Mitglieder sich in nicht-traditionellen Geschlechtsausdrücken und homosexuellen Aktivitäten beteiligen können. [59]
Europe
Classical period [19659049] Die ersten westlichen Dokumente (in Form von literarischen Werken, Kunstobjekten und mythologischen Materialien) über gleichgeschlechtliche Beziehungen stammen aus dem antiken Griechenland.
In Bezug auf die männliche Homosexualität zeigen solche Dokumente ein zeitweise komplexes Verständnis, in dem Beziehungen zu Frauen und Beziehungen zu heranwachsenden Jungen Teil des Liebeslebens eines Mannes sein könnten. Gleichgeschlechtliche Beziehungen waren eine soziale Einrichtung, die im Laufe der Zeit und von Stadt zu Stadt unterschiedlich aufgebaut wurde. Die formale Praxis, eine erotische, aber oft zurückhaltende Beziehung zwischen einem freien, erwachsenen Mann und einem freien Jugendlichen, wurde wegen ihrer pädagogischen Leistungen und als Mittel zur Bevölkerungskontrolle geschätzt, obwohl sie gelegentlich für die Störung verantwortlich gemacht wurde. Platon lobte seine Vorteile in seinen frühen Schriften [60] schlug jedoch in seinen späten Werken ein Verbot vor: [61] Aristoteles in der Politics entließ Platos Ideen über die Abschaffung der Homosexualität (2.4); Er erklärt, dass Barbaren wie die Kelten ihm eine besondere Ehre zutrauten (2.6.6), während die Kreter sie zur Regelung der Bevölkerung verwendeten (2.7.5). [62]
Hier werden weibliche Jugendliche dargestellt, die Sappho umgeben Gemälde von Lafond "Sappho singt für Homer", 1824.
Über weibliche Homosexualität in der Antike ist wenig bekannt. Sappho, auf der Insel Lesbos geboren, wurde von späteren Griechen in die kanonische Liste der neun Lyriker aufgenommen. Die Adjektive, die sich aus ihrem Namen und ihrem Geburtsort (Sapphic and Lesbian) ableiten, wurden ab dem 19. Jahrhundert auf weibliche Homosexualität angewandt. [63] [64] Sapphos Poesie konzentriert sich auf Leidenschaft und Liebe für verschiedene Personen und beide Geschlechter. Die Erzähler vieler ihrer Gedichte sprechen von Verblendung und Liebe (manchmal gefordert, manchmal nicht) für verschiedene Frauen, aber es gibt nur wenige Beschreibungen von körperlichen Handlungen zwischen Frauen. [65] [66] [66] 19659066] Sappho liest ihren Begleitern auf einer attischen Vase von c. 435 v. Chr.
Im antiken Rom blieb der junge männliche Körper ein Schwerpunkt männlicher sexueller Aufmerksamkeit, aber es gab Beziehungen zwischen älteren freien Männern und Sklaven oder befreiten Jugendlichen, die beim Sex die aufnahmefähige Rolle übernahmen. Der hellenistische Kaiser Hadrian ist bekannt für seine Beziehung zu Antinous, aber der christliche Kaiser Theodosius I. verordnete am 6. August 390 ein Gesetz, das passive Männer dazu verurteilte, im Pfahl verbrannt zu werden. Trotz dieser Bestimmungen wurden bis zum Ende der Regierungszeit von Anastasius I. im Jahr 518 Steuern auf Bordelle mit Jungen erhoben, die für homosexuellen Sex zur Verfügung standen. Justinian erweiterte sein Verbot gegen Ende seiner Regierungszeit auch auf den aktiven Partner (in 558). , Warnung, dass ein solches Verhalten zur Zerstörung von Städten durch den "Zorn Gottes" führen kann.
Renaissance
Während der Renaissance waren reiche Städte in Norditalien - insbesondere Florenz und Venedig - für ihre weit verbreitete Praxis der gleichgeschlechtlichen Liebe bekannt, die von einem beträchtlichen Teil der männlichen Bevölkerung ausgeübt und entlang des Klassikers errichtet wurde Muster von Griechenland und Rom. [67] [68] Aber selbst als viele Männer in gleichgeschlechtlichen Beziehungen verwickelt waren, verfolgten, verurteilten und verurteilten die Behörden unter der Aufsicht der Offiziere des Nachtgerichts einen großen Teil dieser Bevölkerung.
Ab der zweiten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts war der Tod in fast ganz Europa die Bestrafung männlicher Homosexualität. [69] Die Beziehungen von sozial prominenten Persönlichkeiten wie König James I und dem Herzog von Buckingham machten das Thema deutlich, auch in anonym verfassten Street Pamphlets: "Die Welt verändert sich, ich weiß nicht wie, Für Männer Kiss Men, nicht für Frauen Nun, von J. dem Ersten und Buckingham: Er ist wahr, seine Ehefrauen-Umarmungen flohen, um seinen geliebten Ganimede zu besiegen "( Mundus Foppensis oder The Fop Display'd 1691) ).
Moderne
Liebesbriefe zwischen einem bestimmten späten Adligen und dem berühmten Herrn Wilson wurde 1723 in England veröffentlicht und wurde von einigen modernen Gelehrten als Roman angenommen. Die 1749er Ausgabe von John Clelands populärem Roman Fanny Hill enthält eine homosexuelle Szene, die jedoch in ihrer 1750er Edition entfernt wurde. Ebenfalls im Jahr 1749 wurde die erste erweiterte und ernsthafte Verteidigung der Homosexualität in englischer Sprache, Alte und Moderne Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified von Thomas Cannon geschrieben, veröffentlicht, die jedoch fast sofort unterdrückt wurde. Es enthält die Passage: "Unnatürliches Verlangen ist ein Widerspruch in Begriffen; geradezu Unsinn. Verlangen ist ein amatorischer Impuls der innersten menschlichen Teile." [70] Um 1785 schrieb Jeremy Bentham eine andere Verteidigung, aber dies war nicht der Fall veröffentlicht bis 1978. [71] Die Hinrichtungen wegen Sodomie wurden in den Niederlanden bis 1803 und in England bis 1835 fortgesetzt.
Zwischen 1864 und 1880 veröffentlichte Karl Heinrich Ulrichs eine Serie von zwölf Traktaten, die er gemeinsam als Forschung über das Rätsel der mannlosen Liebe betitelte. 1867 war er die erste selbsternannte homosexuelle Person, die sich öffentlich zur Verteidigung der Homosexualität aussprach, als er auf dem Kongress der deutschen Juristen in München um eine Resolution bat, in der die Aufhebung der Gesetze gegen Homosexuelle gefordert wurde. [13] [13] [13] [19659022] Sexual Inversion von Havelock Ellis, veröffentlicht im Jahr 1896, stellte Theorien in Frage, dass Homosexualität nicht nur Klischees war, sondern auch Stereotype und bestand auf der Allgegenwart der Homosexualität und ihrer Verbindung mit intellektueller und künstlerischer Leistung. [72] [72] 19659003] Obwohl solche medizinischen Texte (die teilweise in lateinischer Sprache verfasst wurden, um die sexuellen Details zu verschleiern) von der breiten Öffentlichkeit nicht allgemein gelesen wurden, führten sie doch zum Aufstieg des Wissenschaftlich-Humanitären Komitees von Magnus Hirschfeld, das sich von 1897 bis 1933 gegen die Bekämpfung von Sodomiegesetze in Deutschland sowie eine viel informellere, nicht publizierte Bewegung unter britischen Intellektuellen und Schriftstellern, angeführt von Persönlichkeiten wie Edward Carpenter und John Addington Symonds. Der sozialistische Aktivist und Dichter Edward Carpenter schrieb ab 1894 mit Homogenic Love eine Reihe von pro-homosexuellen Artikeln und Flugschriften und kam 1916 in seinem Buch My Days and Dreams heraus. . Im Jahr 1900 veröffentlichte Elisar von Kupffer eine Anthologie homosexueller Literatur von der Antike zu seiner eigenen Zeit, Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur .
Naher Osten
Eine Illustration aus dem Buch des 19. Jahrhunderts Sawaqub al-Manaquib die homosexuellen Analsex mit einem Weinjungen darstellt.
Es gibt eine Handvoll Berichte arabischer Reisender während des Mitte der 1800er Jahre. Zwei dieser Reisenden, Rifa'ah al-Tahtawi und Muhammad as-Saffar, zeigen ihre Überraschung, dass die Franzosen manchmal absichtlich eine Liebesdichtung über einen kleinen Jungen übersetzten, anstatt sich auf eine junge Frau zu beziehen, um ihre sozialen Normen und Moral aufrechtzuerhalten. [73]
Israel gilt als das toleranteste Land des Nahen Ostens und Asiens für Homosexuelle [74] wobei Tel Aviv "die schwule Hauptstadt des Nahen Ostens" genannt wird, [75] und gilt als eine der schwulenfreundlichsten Städte der Welt. [76] Die jährliche Pride Parade zur Unterstützung der Homosexualität findet in Tel Aviv statt. [77]
Auf der anderen Seite ignorieren viele Regierungen im Nahen Osten die Existenz von Homosexualität oder bestrafen sie oder kriminalisieren sie. Homosexualität ist in fast allen muslimischen Ländern illegal. [78] Gleichgeschlechtlicher Verkehr trägt offiziell die Todesstrafe in mehreren muslimischen Ländern: Saudi-Arabien, Iran, Mauretanien, Nordnigeria, Sudan und Jemen. [79] Der iranische Präsident Mahmoud Ahmadinedschad hat in seiner Rede an der Columbia University 2007 behauptet, dass es im Iran keine Schwulen gibt. Der wahrscheinliche Grund ist, dass sie ihre Sexualität aus Angst vor Regierungssanktionen oder der Ablehnung durch ihre Familien geheim halten. 19459133 [80]
Vorislamische Zeit
Im alten Sumer eine Reihe von Priestern, die als bekannt waren gala arbeitete in den Tempeln der Göttin Inanna, wo sie Elegien und Klagelieder aufführte. [82] : 285 Gala erhielt weibliche Namen , sprach in dem eme-sal Dialekt, der traditionell für Frauen reserviert war und offenbar mit homosexuellem Verkehr zu tun hatte. [83] Das sumerische Zeichen für die Gala war eine Ligatur der Zeichen für "Penis" und "Anus". [83] Ein sumerisches Sprichwort lautet: "Als die Gala von 19459026 [he said] seinen Hintern abwischte:" Ich darf nicht das erwecken, was meiner Geliebten [i.e., Inanna] gehört. " [83] Später mesopotamische Kulturen, kurgarrū und assinnu waren Dienerinnen der Göttin Ishtar (Inannas ostsemitisches Äquivalent), die sich in Frauenkleidern kleidete und Kriegstänze in Ishtars Tempeln aufführte. [83] Mehrere akkadische Sprichwörter lassen vermuten, dass sie möglicherweise auch am homosexuellen Verkehr beteiligt waren. [83]
Im alten Assyrien war Homosexualität präsent und üblich; es wurde auch nicht verboten, verurteilt oder als unmoralisch oder ungeordnet angesehen. Einige religiöse Texte enthalten Gebete für göttliche Segnungen in homosexuellen Beziehungen. [84] [85] Almanac of Incantations enthielt Gebete, die gleichermaßen die Liebe eines Mannes zu einer Frau, einer Frau zu einem Mann und eines Mannes zu Mann begünstigten. [86]
Der Großraum Iran, Homosexualität und homoerotische Ausdrücke wurden an zahlreichen öffentlichen Orten toleriert, von Klöstern und Seminaren bis zu Tavernen, Militärlagern, Badehäusern und Kaffeehäusern. In der frühen Safawiden-Dynastie (1501–1723) wurden männliche Prostitutionshäuser ( amrad khane ) gesetzlich anerkannt und zahlten Steuern.
Einige Gelehrte argumentieren, dass es in der antiken Literatur Beispiele für homosexuelle Liebe gibt, wie im Mesopotamischen Gilgamesch-Epos sowie in der biblischen Geschichte von David und Jonathan. Im Gilgamesch-Epos wurde die Beziehung zwischen dem Hauptprotagonisten Gilgamesch und der Figur Enkidu von einigen als homosexuell angesehen. [87] [88] [90] In ähnlicher Weise ist Davids Liebe zu Jonathan "größer als die Liebe zu Frauen." [91]
South Pacific
In vielen Gesellschaften von Melanesien, insbesondere in Papua-Neuguinea, waren gleichgeschlechtliche Beziehungen ein wesentlicher Bestandteil der Kultur bis Mitte der 1900er Jahre. Etoro und Marind-anim beispielsweise betrachteten Heterosexualität als sündig und feierten stattdessen Homosexualität. In vielen traditionellen melanesischen Kulturen würde ein präpubertärer Junge mit einem älteren Jugendlichen gepaart, der sein Mentor werden würde und ihn über mehrere Jahre hinweg (oral, anal oder topisch, je nach Stamm) besetzen würde, um für die jüngeren Kinder zu sorgen auch die pubertät erreichen. Viele melanesische Gesellschaften sind jedoch seit der Einführung des Christentums durch europäische Missionare feindselig gegenüber gleichgeschlechtlichen Beziehungen. [92]
Sexualität und Identität
Verhalten und Verlangen
The American Psychological Association Die American Psychiatric Association und die National Association of Social Workers bezeichnen sexuelle Orientierung als "nicht nur als ein persönliches Merkmal, das isoliert definiert werden kann. Vielmehr definiert die sexuelle Orientierung des Menschen das Universum der Personen, mit denen die befriedigenden und erfüllenden Beziehungen wahrscheinlich sind ": [2]
Sexuelle Orientierung wird allgemein als ein Merkmal des Individuums wie biologisches Geschlecht, Geschlechtsidentität oder Alter diskutiert. Diese Perspektive ist unvollständig, da sexuelle Orientierung immer in relationalen Begriffen definiert ist und notwendigerweise Beziehungen zu anderen Individuen beinhaltet. Sexuelle Handlungen und romantische Anziehungskräfte werden als homosexuell oder heterosexuell eingestuft, je nach biologischem Geschlecht der an ihnen beteiligten Personen. Tatsächlich drückt der Einzelne seine Heterosexualität, Homosexualität oder Bisexualität aus, indem er mit einer anderen Person handelt oder dies wünscht. Dies umfasst Handlungen, die so einfach sind wie das Händchenhalten oder das Küssen einer anderen Person. Daher ist die sexuelle Orientierung ganzheitlich mit den intimen persönlichen Beziehungen verbunden, die Menschen mit anderen eingehen, um ihren tief empfundenen Bedürfnissen nach Liebe, Anhaftung und Intimität gerecht zu werden. Neben sexuellem Verhalten umfassen diese Bindungen nicht-sexuelle körperliche Zuneigung zwischen Partnern, gemeinsame Ziele und Werte, gegenseitige Unterstützung und fortwährendes Engagement. [2]
Die Kinsey-Skala, auch als heterosexuell-homosexuelle Bewertungsskala bezeichnet. [93] versucht, die sexuelle Geschichte einer Person oder Episoden ihrer sexuellen Aktivität zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt zu beschreiben. Es verwendet eine Skala von 0 (ausschließlich heterosexuell) bis 6 (ausschließlich homosexuell). Sowohl in den männlichen als auch in den weiblichen Bänden der Kinsey-Berichte wurde eine zusätzliche Note, die als "X" bezeichnet wird, von Wissenschaftlern als Hinweis auf Asexualität interpretiert. [94]
Sexuelle Orientierungsidentität und sexuelle Fluidität
Oft Die sexuelle Orientierung und die sexuelle Orientierung werden nicht unterschieden, was die genaue Beurteilung der sexuellen Identität beeinflussen kann und ob sich die sexuelle Orientierung ändern kann oder nicht. Die Identität der sexuellen Orientierung kann sich im Laufe des Lebens eines Individuums ändern und kann mit dem biologischen Geschlecht, dem sexuellen Verhalten oder der tatsächlichen sexuellen Orientierung übereinstimmen oder nicht. [95] [96] [97] Während das Zentrum für Sucht und psychische Gesundheit und die American Psychiatric Association angeben, dass sexuelle Orientierung für einige Menschen während ihres ganzen Lebens angeboren, kontinuierlich oder fest ist, für andere jedoch im Laufe der Zeit flüssig ist oder sich ändert, [98] [19460180 Die American Psychological Association unterscheidet zwischen sexueller Orientierung (einer angeborenen Anziehungskraft) und sexueller Orientierungsidentität (die sich irgendwann im Leben eines Menschen ändern kann.) [100]
Gleichgeschlechtliche Beziehungen
Homosexualitätssymbol für Männer
Homosexualitätssymbol für Frauen
Menschen mit homosexueller Orientierung können ihre Sexualität auf vielfältige Weise ausdrücken und können dies in ihrem Verhalten nicht ausdrücken. [1] Viele haben sexuelle Beziehungen vorwiegend mit Personen ihrer eigenen Geschlechtsidentität, obwohl einige sexuelle Beziehungen zu denen des anderen Geschlechts, bisexuellen oder überhaupt keiner haben (Zölibat). [1] Umfragedaten zeigen, dass derzeit zwischen 40% und 60% der schwulen Männer und zwischen 45% und 80% der Lesben eine Liebesbeziehung haben. [101] Survey data also indicate that between 18% and 28% of gay couples and between 8% and 21% of lesbian couples in the U.S. have lived together ten or more years.[101] Studies have found same-sex and opposite-sex couples to be equivalent to each other in measures of satisfaction and commitment in relationships, that age and gender are more reliable than sexual orientation as a predictor of satisfaction and commitment to a relationship, and that people who are heterosexual or homosexual share comparable expectations and ideals with regard to romantic relationships.[102][103][104]
Coming out of the closet
Coming out (of the closet) is a phrase referring to one's disclosure of their sexual orientation or gender identity, and is described and experienced variously as a psychological process or journey.[106] Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first phase is that of "knowing oneself", and the realization emerges that one is open to same-sex relations.[107] This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, or colleagues. The third phase more generally involves living openly as an LGBT person.[108] In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes their own families are not even informed.
According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), "the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality."[109]
Outing is the practice of publicly revealing the sexual orientation of a closeted person.[110] Notable politicians, celebrities, military service people, and clergy members have been outed, with motives ranging from malice to political or moral beliefs. Many commentators oppose the practice altogether,[111] while some encourage outing public figures who use their positions of influence to harm other gay people.[112]
Lesbian narratives and sexual orientation awareness
Lesbians often experience their sexuality differently from gay men, and have different understandings about etiology from those derived from studies focused mostly on men. For information specific to female homosexuality, see Lesbian.
In a U.S.-based 1970s mail survey by Shere Hite, lesbians self-reported their reasons for being lesbian. This is the only major piece of research into female sexuality that has looked at how women understand being homosexual since Kinsey in 1953. The research yielded information about women's general understanding of lesbian relationships and their sexual orientation. Women gave various reasons for preferring sexual relations with women to sexual relations with men, including finding women more sensitive to other people's needs.[113]
Since Hite carried out her study she has acknowledged that some women may have chosen the political identity of a lesbian. Julie Bindel, a UK journalist, reaffirmed that "political lesbianism continues to make intrinsic sense because it reinforces the idea that sexuality is a choice, and we are not destined to a particular fate because of our chromosomes." as recently as 2009.[114]
Gender identity
Early 20th-century writers on a homosexual orientation usually understood it to be intrinsically linked to the subject's own sex. For example, it was thought that a typical female-bodied person who is attracted to female-bodied persons would have masculine attributes, and vice versa.[115] However, this understanding as sexual inversion was disputed at the time, and through the second half of the 20th century, gender identity came to be increasingly seen as a phenomenon distinct from sexual orientation.
Transgender and cisgender people may be attracted to men, women or both, although the prevalence of different sexual orientations is quite different in these two populations (see sexual orientation of transwomen). An individual homosexual, heterosexual or bisexual person may be masculine, feminine, or androgynous, and in addition, many members and supporters of lesbian and gay communities now see the "gender-conforming heterosexual" and the "gender-nonconforming homosexual" as negative stereotypes. However, studies by J. Michael Bailey and K.J. Zucker have found that a majority of gay men and lesbians report being gender-nonconforming during their childhood years.[116]
Demographics
Reliable data as to the size of the gay and lesbian population are of value in informing public policy.[119] For example, demographics would help in calculating the costs and benefits of domestic partnership benefits, of the impact of legalizing gay adoption, and of the impact of the U.S. military's Don't Ask Don't Tell policy.[119] Further, knowledge of the size of the "gay and lesbian population holds promise for helping social scientists understand a wide array of important questions—questions about the general nature of labor market choices, accumulation of human capital, specialization within households, discrimination, and decisions about geographic location."[119]
Measuring the prevalence of homosexuality presents difficulties. It is necessary to consider the measuring criteria that are used, the cutoff point and the time span taken to define a sexual orientation.[13] Many people, despite having same-sex attractions, may be reluctant to identify themselves as gay or bisexual. The research must measure some characteristic that may or may not be defining of sexual orientation. The number of people with same-sex desires may be larger than the number of people who act on those desires, which in turn may be larger than the number of people who self-identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.[119]
In 1948 and 1953, Alfred Kinsey reported that nearly 46% of the male subjects had "reacted" sexually to persons of both sexes in the course of their adult lives, and 37% had had at least one homosexual experience.[120][121] Kinsey's methodology was criticized by John Tukey for using convenience samples and not random samples.[122][123] A later study tried to eliminate the sample bias, but still reached similar conclusions.[124]Simon LeVay cites these Kinsey results as an example of the caution needed to interpret demographic studies, as they may give quite differing numbers depending on what criteria are used to conduct them, in spite of using sound scientific methods.[13]
According to major studies, 2% to 11% of people have had some form of same-sex sexual contact within their lifetime;[125][126][127][128][129][130][131][132][133][134] this percentage rises to 16–21% when either or both same-sex attraction and behavior are reported.[134] In a 2006 study, 20% of respondents anonymously reported some homosexual feelings, although only 2–3% identified themselves as homosexual.[135] A 1992 study reported that 6.1% of males in Britain have had a homosexual experience, while in France the number was reported at 4.1%.[136]
In the United States, according to a report by The Williams Institute in April 2011, 3.5% or approximately 9 million of the adult population are lesbian, gay, or bisexual.[137][138] According to the 2000 United States Census, there were about 601,209 same-sex unmarried partner households.[139]
A 2013 study by the CDC in which over 34,000 Americans were interviewed, puts the percentage of lesbians and gays at 1.6% and 0.7% as bisexual.[140]
Polling
According to a 2008 poll, 13% of Britons have had some form of same-sex sexual contact while only 6% of Britons identify themselves as either homosexual or bisexual.[141] In contrast, a survey by the UK Office for National Statistics (ONS) in 2010 found that 95% of Britons identified as heterosexual, 1.5% of Britons identified themselves as homosexual or bisexual, and the last 3.5% gave more vague answers such as "don't know", "other", or did not respond to the question.[121][142]
In October 2012, Gallup started conducting annual surveys to study the demographics of LGBT people, determining that 3.4% (±1%) of adults identified as LGBT in the United States.[143] It was the nation's largest poll on the issue at the time.[144][145] In 2017, the percentage was estimated to have risen to 4.5% of adults, with the increase largely driven by Millennials.[146]
Gallup polling of U.S. adults identifying as LGBT per year
Date of Birth
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
1913-1945
1.8%
1.8%
1.9%
1.5%
1.5%
1.4%
1946-1964
2.7%
2.7%
2.7%
2.6%
2.4%
2.4%
1965-1979
3.2%
3.3%
3.4%
3.3%
3.2%
3.5%
1980-1999
5.8%
6.0%
6.3%
6.7%
7.3%
8.2%
Psychology
The American Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the National Association of Social Workers state:
“
In 1952, when the American Psychiatric Association published its first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, homosexuality was included as a disorder. Almost immediately, however, that classification began to be subjected to critical scrutiny in research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. That study and subsequent research consistently failed to produce any empirical or scientific basis for regarding homosexuality as a disorder or abnormality, rather than a normal and healthy sexual orientation. As results from such research accumulated, professionals in medicine, mental health, and the behavioral and social sciences reached the conclusion that it was inaccurate to classify homosexuality as a mental disorder and that the DSM classification reflected untested assumptions based on once-prevalent social norms and clinical impressions from unrepresentative samples comprising patients seeking therapy and individuals whose conduct brought them into the criminal justice system.
In recognition of the scientific evidence,[147] the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the DSM in 1973, stating that "homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities." After thoroughly reviewing the scientific data, the American Psychological Association adopted the same position in 1975, and urged all mental health professionals "to take the lead in removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated with homosexual orientations." The National Association of Social Workers has adopted a similar policy.
Thus, mental health professionals and researchers have long recognized that being homosexual poses no inherent obstacle to leading a happy, healthy, and productive life, and that the vast majority of gay and lesbian people function well in the full array of social institutions and interpersonal relationships.[2]
”
The longstanding consensus of research and clinical literature demonstrates that same-sex sexual and romantic attractions, feelings, and behaviors are normal and positive variations of human sexuality.[148] There is now a large body of research evidence that indicates that being gay, lesbian or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment.[7] The World Health Organization's ICD-9 (1977) listed homosexuality as a mental illness; it was removed from the ICD-10, endorsed by the Forty-third World Health Assembly on 17 May 1990.[149][150][151] Like the DSM-II, the ICD-10 added ego-dystonic sexual orientation to the list, which refers to people who want to change their gender identities or sexual orientation because of a psychological or behavioral disorder (F66.1). The Chinese Society of Psychiatry removed homosexuality from its Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders in 2001 after five years of study by the association.[152] According to the Royal College of Psychiatrists "This unfortunate history demonstrates how marginalisation of a group of people who have a particular personality feature (in this case homosexuality) can lead to harmful medical practice and a basis for discrimination in society.[7] There is now a large body of research evidence that indicates that being gay, lesbian or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment. However, the experiences of discrimination in society and possible rejection by friends, families and others, such as employers, means that some LGB people experience a greater than expected prevalence of mental health difficulties and substance misuse problems. Although there have been claims by conservative political groups in the USA that this higher prevalence of mental health difficulties is confirmation that homosexuality is itself a mental disorder, there is no evidence whatever to substantiate such a claim."[153]
Most lesbian, gay, and bisexual people who seek psychotherapy do so for the same reasons as heterosexual people (stress, relationship difficulties, difficulty adjusting to social or work situations, etc.); their sexual orientation may be of primary, incidental, or no importance to their issues and treatment. Whatever the issue, there is a high risk for anti-gay bias in psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients.[154] Psychological research in this area has been relevant to counteracting prejudicial ("homophobic") attitudes and actions, and to the LGBT rights movement generally.[155]
The appropriate application of affirmative psychotherapy is based on the following scientific facts:[148]
Same-sex sexual attractions, behavior, and orientations per se are normal and positive variants of human sexuality; in other words, they are not indicators of mental or developmental disorders.
Homosexuality and bisexuality are stigmatized, and this stigma can have a variety of negative consequences (e.g., minority stress) throughout the life span (D'Augelli & Patterson, 1995; DiPlacido, 1998; Herek & Garnets, 2007; Meyer, 1995, 2003).
Same-sex sexual attractions and behavior can occur in the context of a variety of sexual orientations and sexual orientation identities (Diamond, 2006; Hoburg et al., 2004; Rust, 1996; Savin-Williams, 2005).
Gay men, lesbians, and bisexual individuals can live satisfying lives as well as form stable, committed relationships and families that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects (APA, 2005c; Kurdek, 2001, 2003, 2004; Peplau & Fingerhut, 2007).
There are no empirical studies or peer-reviewed research that support theories attributing same-sex sexual orientation to family dysfunction or trauma (Bell et al., 1981; Bene, 1965; Freund & Blanchard, 1983; Freund & Pinkava, 1961; Hooker, 1969; McCord et al., 1962; D. K. Peters & Cantrell, 1991; Siegelman, 1974, 1981; Townes et al., 1976).
Causes
Biological vs environmental determinants
Further information: Xq28
Although scientists favor biological models for the cause of sexual orientation,[3] they do not believe that it is the result of any one factor. They generally believe that it is determined by biological and environmental factors; they state that most people's sexual orientation is determined at an early age, and sexual orientation development involves a complex interplay between nature and nurture.[1][4][5] The biological factors are genetic and hormonal, both of which affect the fetal development of the brain, while environmental factors may be sociological, psychological, or involve the early uterine environment.[1][3][4] Scientists generally do not believe that sexual orientation is a matter of choice.[4][156]
The American Academy of Pediatrics stated in Pediatrics in 2004:
“
There is no scientific evidence that abnormal parenting, sexual abuse, or other adverse life events influence sexual orientation. Current knowledge suggests that sexual orientation is usually established during early childhood.[3][157]
”
The American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, and National Association of Social Workers stated in 2006:
“
Currently, there is no scientific consensus about the specific factors that cause an individual to become heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual—including possible biological, psychological, or social effects of the parents' sexual orientation. However, the available evidence indicates that the vast majority of lesbian and gay adults were raised by heterosexual parents and the vast majority of children raised by lesbian and gay parents eventually grow up to be heterosexual.[1]
”
Research into the causes of homosexuality plays a role in political and social debates and also raises concerns about genetic profiling and prenatal testing.[158][159]
Despite numerous attempts, no "gay gene" has been identified. However, there is substantial evidence for a genetic basis of homosexuality especially in males based on twin studies, with some association with regions of Chromosome 8 and with the Xq28 gene on the X chromosome.[160] Starting in the 2010s, epigenetics has been implicated in sexual orientiation. A study presented at the ASHG 2015 Annual Meeting found that the methylation pattern in nine regions of the genome appeared very closely linked to sexual orientation, with a resulting algorithm using the methylation pattern to predict the sexual orientation of a control group with almost 70% accuracy.[161][162]
Evolutionary perspectives
Since homosexuality tends to lower reproductive success, and since there is considerable evidence that human sexual orientation is genetically influenced, it is unclear how it is maintained in the population at a relatively high frequency.[163] There are many possible explanations, such as genes predisposing to homosexuality also conferring advantage in heterosexuals, a kin selection effect, social prestige, and more.[164] A 2009 study also suggested a significant increase in fecundity in the females related to the homosexual people from the maternal line (but not in those related from the paternal one).[165]
Sexual orientation change efforts
There are no studies of adequate scientific rigor that conclude that sexual orientation change efforts work to change a person's sexual orientation. Those efforts have been controversial due to tensions between the values held by some faith-based organizations, on the one hand, and those held by LGBT rights organizations and professional and scientific organizations and other faith-based organizations, on the other.[12] The longstanding consensus of the behavioral and social sciences and the health and mental health professions is that homosexuality per se is a normal and positive variation of human sexual orientation, and therefore not a mental disorder.[12] The American Psychological Association says that "most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation".[166] Some individuals and groups have promoted the idea of homosexuality as symptomatic of developmental defects or spiritual and moral failings and have argued that sexual orientation change efforts, including psychotherapy and religious efforts, could alter homosexual feelings and behaviors. Many of these individuals and groups appeared to be embedded within the larger context of conservative religious political movements that have supported the stigmatization of homosexuality on political or religious grounds.[12]
No major mental health professional organization has sanctioned efforts to change sexual orientation and virtually all of them have adopted policy statements cautioning the profession and the public about treatments that purport to change sexual orientation. These include the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Counseling Association, National Association of Social Workers in the US,[167] the Royal College of Psychiatrists,[168] and the Australian Psychological Society.[169] The American Psychological Association and the Royal College of Psychiatrists expressed concerns that the positions espoused by NARTH are not supported by the science and create an environment in which prejudice and discrimination can flourish.[168][170]
The American Psychological Association states that "sexual orientation is not a choice that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors...is shaped at an early age...[and evidence suggests] biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality."[4] They say that "sexual orientation identity—not sexual orientation—appears to change via psychotherapy, support groups, and life events."[12] The American Psychiatric Association says "individuals maybe become aware at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual" and "opposes any psychiatric treatment, such as 'reparative' or 'conversion' therapy, which is based upon the assumption that homosexuality per se is a mental disorder, or based upon a prior assumption that the patient should change his/her homosexual orientation". They do, however, encourage gay affirmative psychotherapy.[99] Similarly, the American *Psychological* Association[171] is doubtful about the effectiveness and side-effect profile of sexual orientation change efforts, including conversion therapy.
The American Psychological Association "encourages mental health professionals to avoid misrepresenting the efficacy of sexual orientation change efforts by promoting or promising change in sexual orientation when providing assistance to individuals distressed by their own or others' sexual orientation and concludes that the benefits reported by participants in sexual orientation change efforts can be gained through approaches that do not attempt to change sexual orientation".[12]
Parenting
Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as children reared by heterosexual parents.[172][173][174] According to scientific literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary.[2][175][176][177][178]
A 2001 review suggested that the children with lesbian or gay parents appear less traditionally gender-typed and are more likely to be open to homoerotic relationships, partly due to genetic (80% of the children being raised by same-sex couples in the US are not adopted and most are the result of heterosexual marriages.[179]) and family socialization processes (children grow up in relatively more tolerant school, neighborhood, and social contexts, which are less heterosexist), even though majority of children raised by same-sex couples identify as heterosexual.[180] A 2005 review by Charlotte J. Patterson for the American Psychological Association found that the available data did not suggest higher rates of homosexuality among the children of lesbian or gay parents.[181]
Health
Physical
Blood donation policies for men who have sex with men
Men who have sex with men may donate blood; No deferral
Men who have sex with men may donate blood; No deferral, except for blood transfusions1
Men who have sex with men may donate blood; Temporary deferral1
Men who have sex with men may not donate blood; Permanent deferral1
No Data
1No restriction in Israel, Belgium and the United States of America if last MSM activity was before 1977.
The terms "men who have sex with men" (MSM) and "women who have sex with women" (WSW) refer to people who engage in sexual activity with others of the same sex regardless of how they identify themselves—as many choose not to accept social identities as lesbian, gay and bisexual.[182][183][184][185][186] These terms are often used in medical literature and social research to describe such groups for study, without needing to consider the issues of sexual self-identity. The terms are seen as problematic by some, however, because they "obscure social dimensions of sexuality; undermine the self-labeling of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people; and do not sufficiently describe variations in sexual behavior".[187]
In contrast to its benefits, sexual behavior can be a disease vector. Safe sex is a relevant harm reduction philosophy.[188] Many countries currently prohibit men who have sex with men from donating blood; the policy of the United States Food and Drug Administration states that "they are, as a group, at increased risk for HIV, hepatitis B and certain other infections that can be transmitted by transfusion."[189]
Public health
These safer sex recommendations are agreed upon by public health officials for women who have sex with women to avoid sexually transmitted infections (STIs):
Avoid contact with a partner's menstrual blood and with any visible genital lesions.
Cover sex toys that penetrate more than one person's vagina or anus with a new condom for each person; consider using different toys for each person.
Use a barrier (e.g., latex sheet, dental dam, cut-open condom, plastic wrap) during oral sex.
Use latex or vinyl gloves and lubricant for any manual sex that might cause bleeding.[190]
These safer sex recommendations are agreed upon by public health officials for men who have sex with men to avoid sexually transmitted infections:
Avoid contact with a partner's bodily fluids and with any visible genital lesions.
Use condoms for anal and oral sex.
Use a barrier (e.g., latex sheet, dental dam, cut-open condom) during anal–oral sex.
Cover sex toys that penetrate more than one person with a new condom for each person; consider using different toys for each person and use latex or vinyl gloves and lubricant for any sex that might cause bleeding.[191][192]
Mental
When it was first described in medical literature, homosexuality was often approached from a view that sought to find an inherent psychopathology as its root cause. Much literature on mental health and homosexual patients centered on their depression, substance abuse, and suicide. Although these issues exist among people who are non-heterosexual, discussion about their causes shifted after homosexuality was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) in 1973. Instead, social ostracism, legal discrimination, internalization of negative stereotypes, and limited support structures indicate factors homosexual people face in Western societies that often adversely affect their mental health.[193] Stigma, prejudice, and discrimination stemming from negative societal attitudes toward homosexuality lead to a higher prevalence of mental health disorders among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals compared to their heterosexual peers.[194] Evidence indicates that the liberalization of these attitudes over the 1990s through the 2010s is associated with a decrease in such mental health risks among younger LGBT people.[195]
Gay and lesbian youth
Gay and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide, substance abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a "hostile and condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and isolation from family and peers".[196] Further, LGBT youths are more likely to report psychological and physical abuse by parents or caretakers, and more sexual abuse. Suggested reasons for this disparity are that (1) LGBT youths may be specifically targeted on the basis of their perceived sexual orientation or gender non-conforming appearance, and (2) that "risk factors associated with sexual minority status, including discrimination, invisibility, and rejection by family members...may lead to an increase in behaviors that are associated with risk for victimization, such as substance abuse, sex with multiple partners, or running away from home as a teenager."[197] A 2008 study showed a correlation between the degree of rejecting behavior by parents of LGB adolescents and negative health problems in the teenagers studied:
Higher rates of family rejection were significantly associated with poorer health outcomes. On the basis of odds ratios, lesbian, gay, and bisexual young adults who reported higher levels of family rejection during adolescence were 8.4 times more likely to report having attempted suicide, 5.9 times more likely to report high levels of depression, 3.4 times more likely to use illegal drugs, and 3.4 times more likely to report having engaged in unprotected sexual intercourse compared with peers from families that reported no or low levels of family rejection.[198]
Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet have arisen to help youth and adults.[199]The Trevor Project, a suicide prevention helpline for gay youth, was established following the 1998 airing on HBO of the Academy Award winning short film Trevor.[200]
Law and politics
Legality
Worldwide laws regarding same-sex intercourse and freedom of expression and association
Same-sex intercourse legal
Marriage1
Marriage recognized but not performed1
Civil unions1
Unregistered cohabitation1
Same-sex unions not recognized
Laws restricting freedom of expression and association
Same-sex intercourse illegal
Unenforced penalty2
Imprisonment
Life imprisonment
Death penalty
Rings indicate areas where local judges have granted or denied marriages or imposed the death penalty in a jurisdiction where that is not otherwise the law or areas with a case-by-case application. 1Some jurisdictions in this category may currently have other types of partnerships. 2No arrests in the past three years or moratorium on law.
Decriminalization of same-sex sexual activity by country or territory
1790–1799
1800–1829
1830–1839
1840–1859
1860–1869
1870–1879
1880–1889
1890–1929
1930–1939
1940–19491
1950–1959
1960–1969
1970–1979
1980–1989
1990–19992
2000–2009
2010–present
Same-sex sexual activity legal3
Male same-sex sexual activity illegal
Same-sex sexual activity illegal
Notes
1: During World War II, Nazi Germany annexed territory or established reichskommissariats which extended Germany's laws against same-sex sexual activity to those territories and reichskommissariats. Same-sex sexual activity was previously legalized in the following countries or territories before German annexation or establishment of reichskommissariats: Bas-Rhin (legal in 1791), Belgium (legal in 1795), Belluno (legal in 1890), Friuli-Venezia Giulia (legal in 1890), Haut-Rhin (legal in 1791), Luxembourg (legal in 1795), Moselle (legal in 1791), Netherlands (legal in 1811), Nord (legal in 1791), Pas-de-Calais (legal in 1791), Poland (legal in 1932), and Trentino-Alto Adige / Südtirol (legal in 1890). All countries and territories listed that where annexed or established into reichskommissariats by Nazi Germany during World War II where restored as independent countries or reincorporated into their previous countries during or after the war and thus re-legalized same-sex sexual activity in those areas. 2: In May 1973, the Libyan Arab Republic annexed the Aouzou Strip from Chad. Libya's laws against same-sex sexual activity where thus extended to the annexed Aouzou Strip. In August 1987, during the Toyota War between the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and Chad, Aouzou fell to the Chadian forces, only to be repelled by an overwhelming Libyan counter-offensive. The Aouzou dispute was concluded on February 3, 1994, when the judges of the International Court of Justice by a majority of 16 to 1 decided that the Aouzou Strip belonged to Chad. Monitored by international observers, the withdrawal of Libyan troops from the Strip began on April 15, 1994, and was completed by May 10, 1994. The formal and final transfer of the Aouzou Strip from Libya to Chad took place on May 30, 1994, when the sides signed a joint declaration stating that the Libyan withdrawal had been effected. 3: Same-sex sexual activity was never criminalized in the following countries and territories: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cambodia Central African Republic, Chad (excluding Aouzou Strip), Clipperton Island, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'IvoireDemocratic Republic of Congo, French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Gabon, Laos, Madagascar, Mali, MayotteNew Caledonia, Niger, North Korea, Rwanda, South Korea, Vietnam, and Wallis and Futuna. Same-sex sexual activity had also never been criminalized in continent of Antarctica.
Most nations do not prohibit consensual sex between unrelated persons above the local age of consent. Some jurisdictions further recognize identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including marriage. Some countries and jurisdictions mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual activity and disallow homosexual activity via sodomy laws. Offenders can face the death penalty in Islamic countries and jurisdictions ruled by sharia. There are, however, often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement.
Although homosexual acts were decriminalized in some parts of the Western world, such as Poland in 1932, Denmark in 1933, Sweden in 1944, and the England and Wales in 1967, it was not until the mid-1970s that the gay community first began to achieve limited civil rights in some developed countries. A turning point was reached in 1973 when the American Psychiatric Association, which previously listed homosexuality in the DSM-I in 1952, removed homosexuality in the DSM-II, in recognition of scientific evidence.[2] In 1977, Quebec became the first state-level jurisdiction in the world to prohibit discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation. During the 1980s and 1990s, most developed countries enacted laws decriminalizing homosexual behavior and prohibiting discrimination against lesbian and gay people in employment, housing, and services. On the other hand, many countries today in the Middle East and Africa, as well as several countries in Asia, the Caribbean and the South Pacific, outlaw homosexuality. In 2013, the Supreme Court of India upheld Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code which criminalized homosexual activity,[201] but, in 2018, overturned itself and legalized homosexual activity throughout India.[202] The Section 377 of the colonial-era Indian Penal Code which criminalizes homosexual activity remains in effect in many former colonies.[203]
10 countries or jurisdictions, all of which are Islamic and ruled by sharia, impose the death penalty for homosexuality.
Laws against sexual orientation discrimination
United States
Employment discrimination refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation, and various types of harassment. In the United States there is "very little statutory, common law, and case law establishing employment discrimination based upon sexual orientation as a legal wrong."[204] Some exceptions and alternative legal strategies are available. President Bill Clinton's Executive Order 13087 (1998) prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation in the competitive service of the federal civilian workforce,[205] and federal non-civil service employees may have recourse under the Due Process Clause of the U.S. Constitution.[206] Private sector workers may have a Title VII action under a quid pro quo sexual harassment theory,[207] a "hostile work environment" theory,[208] a sexual stereotyping theory,[209] or others.[204]
Housing discrimination refers to discrimination against potential or current tenants by landlords. In the United States, there is no federal law against such discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity, but at least thirteen states and many major cities have enacted laws prohibiting it.[210]
Hate crimes (also known as bias crimes) are crimes motivated by bias against an identifiable social group, usually groups defined by race (human classification), religion, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, or political affiliation. In the United States, 45 states and the District of Columbia have statutes criminalizing various types of bias-motivated violence or intimidation (the exceptions are AZ, GA, IN, SC, and WY). Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race, religion, and ethnicity; 32 of them cover sexual orientation, 28 cover gender, and 11 cover transgender/gender-identity.[211] In October 2009, the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, which "...gives the Justice Department the power to investigate and prosecute bias-motivated violence where the perpetrator has selected the victim because of the person's actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity or disability", was signed into law and makes hate crime based on sexual orientation, amongst other offenses, a federal crime in the United States.[212]
European Union
In the European Union, discrimination of any type based on sexual orientation or gender identity is illegal under the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.[213]
Political activism
Since the 1960s, many LGBT people in the West, particularly those in major metropolitan areas, have developed a so-called gay culture. To many,[who?] gay culture is exemplified by the gay pride movement, with annual parades and displays of rainbow flags. Yet not all LGBT people choose to participate in "queer culture", and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To some[who?] it seems to be a frivolous display, perpetuating gay stereotypes.
With the outbreak of AIDS in the early 1980s, many LGBT groups and individuals organized campaigns to promote efforts in AIDS education, prevention, research, patient support, and community outreach, as well as to demand government support for these programs.
The death toll wrought by the AIDS epidemic at first seemed to slow the progress of the gay rights movement, but in time it galvanized some parts of the LGBT community into community service and political action, and challenged the heterosexual community to respond compassionately. Major American motion pictures from this period that dramatized the response of individuals and communities to the AIDS crisis include An Early Frost (1985), Longtime Companion (1990), And the Band Played On (1993), Philadelphia (1993), and Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt (1989).
Publicly gay politicians have attained numerous government posts, even in countries that had sodomy laws in their recent past. Examples include Guido Westerwelle, Germany's Vice-Chancellor; Peter Mandelson, a British Labour Party cabinet minister and Per-Kristian Foss, formerly Norwegian Minister of Finance.
LGBT movements are opposed by a variety of individuals and organizations. Some social conservatives believe that all sexual relationships with people other than an opposite-sex spouse undermine the traditional family[214] and that children should be reared in homes with both a father and a mother.[215][216] Some argue that gay rights may conflict with individuals' freedom of speech,[217][218][219][220][221] religious freedoms in the workplace,[222][223] the ability to run churches,[224] charitable organizations[225][226] and other religious organizations[227] in accordance with one's religious views, and that the acceptance of homosexual relationships by religious organizations might be forced through threatening to remove the tax-exempt status of churches whose views do not align with those of the government.[228][229][230][231] Some critics charge that political correctness has led to the association of sex between males and HIV being downplayed.[232][233]
Military service
Policies and attitudes toward gay and lesbian military personnel vary widely around the world. Some countries allow gay men, lesbians, and bisexual people to serve openly and have granted them the same rights and privileges as their heterosexual counterparts. Many countries neither ban nor support LGB service members. A few countries continue to ban homosexual personnel outright.
Most Western military forces have removed policies excluding sexual minority members. Of the 26 countries that participate militarily in NATO, more than 20 permit openly gay, lesbian and bisexual people to serve. Of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, three (United Kingdom, France and United States) do so. The other two generally do not: China bans gay and lesbian people outright, Russia excludes all gay and lesbian people during peacetime but allows some gay men to serve in wartime (see below). Israel is the only country in the Middle East region that allows openly LGB people to serve in the military.
While the question of homosexuality in the military has been highly politicized in the United States, it is not necessarily so in many countries. Generally speaking, sexuality in these cultures is considered a more personal aspect of one's identity than it is in the United States.
According to American Psychological Association, empirical evidence fails to show that sexual orientation is germane to any aspect of military effectiveness including unit cohesion, morale, recruitment and retention.[234] Sexual orientation is irrelevant to task cohesion, the only type of cohesion that critically predicts the team's military readiness and success.[235]
Society and sociology
Public opinion
2013 Pew Global Research Poll: Should homosexuality be accepted in society? Percentage of responders that answered accept:
81% – 90%
71% – 80%
61% – 70%
51% – 60%
41% – 50%
31% – 40%
21% – 30%
11% – 20%
1% – 10%
No data
Societal acceptance of non-heterosexual orientations such as homosexuality is lowest in Asian and African countries, and is highest in Europe, Australia, and the Americas. Western society has become increasingly accepting of homosexuality since the 1990s. In 2017, Professor Amy Adamczyk contended that these cross-national differences in acceptance can be largely explained by three factors: the relative strength of democratic institutions, the level of economic development, and the religious context of the places where people live.[236]
Relationships
In 2006, the American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association and National Association of Social Workers stated in an amicus brief presented to the Supreme Court of California: "Gay men and lesbians form stable, committed relationships that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects. The institution of marriage offers social, psychological, and health benefits that are denied to same-sex couples. By denying same-sex couples the right to marry, the state reinforces and perpetuates the stigma historically associated with homosexuality. Homosexuality remains stigmatized, and this stigma has negative consequences. California's prohibition on marriage for same-sex couples reflects and reinforces this stigma". They concluded: "There is no scientific basis for distinguishing between same-sex couples and heterosexual couples with respect to the legal rights, obligations, benefits, and burdens conferred by civil marriage."[2]
Religion
Though the relationship between homosexuality and religion is complex, current authoritative bodies and doctrines of the world's largest religions view homosexual behaviour negatively. This can range from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, to explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of homosexuality. Some teach that homosexual desire itself is sinful,[237] others state that only the sexual act is a sin,[238] others are completely accepting of gays and lesbians,[239] while some encourage homosexuality.[240] Some claim that homosexuality can be overcome through religious faith and practice. On the other hand, voices exist within many of these religions that view homosexuality more positively, and liberal religious denominations may bless same-sex marriages. Some view same-sex love and sexuality as sacred, and a mythology of same-sex love can be found around the world.[241]
Discrimination
Gay bullying
Gay bullying can be the verbal or physical abuse against a person who is perceived by the aggressor to be lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender, including persons who are actually heterosexual or of non-specific or unknown sexual orientation. In the US, teenage students heard anti-gay slurs such as "homo", "faggot" and "sissy" about 26 times a day on average, or once every 14 minutes, according to a 1998 study by Mental Health America (formerly National Mental Health Association).[242]
Heterosexism and homophobia
In many cultures, homosexual people are frequently subject to prejudice and discrimination. A 2011 Dutch study concluded that 49% of Holland's youth and 58% of youth foreign to the country reject homosexuality.[243] Similar to other minority groups they can also be subject to stereotyping. These attitudes tend to be due to forms of homophobia and heterosexism (negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships). Heterosexism can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the norm and therefore superior. Homophobia is a fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against homosexual people. It manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.[244] Similar is lesbophobia (specifically targeting lesbians) and biphobia (against bisexual people). When such attitudes manifest as crimes they are often called hate crimes and gay bashing.
Negative stereotypes characterize LGB people as less romantically stable, more promiscuous and more likely to abuse children, but there is no scientific basis to such assertions. Gay men and lesbians form stable, committed relationships that are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential respects.[2] Sexual orientation does not affect the likelihood that people will abuse children.[245][246][247] Claims that there is scientific evidence to support an association between being gay and being a pedophile are based on misuses of those terms and misrepresentation of the actual evidence.[246]
Violence against homosexuals
Further information: Rape
In the United States, the FBI reported that 20.4% of hate crimes reported to law enforcement in 2011 were based on sexual orientation bias. 56.7% of these crimes were based on bias against homosexual men. 11.1% were based on bias against homosexual women. 29.6% were based on anti-homosexual bias without regard to gender.[248] The 1998 murder of Matthew Shepard, a gay student, is a notorious such incident in the U.S. LGBT people, especially lesbians, may become the victims of "corrective rape", a violent crime with the supposed aim of making them heterosexual. In certain parts of the world, LGBT people are also at risk of "honor killings" perpetrated by their families or relatives.[249][250][251]
Homosexual behavior in other animals
Homosexual and bisexual behaviors occur in a number of other animal species. Such behaviors include sexual activity, courtship, affection, pair bonding, and parenting,[17] and are widespread; a 1999 review by researcher Bruce Bagemihl shows that homosexual behavior has been documented in about 500 species, ranging from primates to gut worms.[17][18] Animal sexual behavior takes many different forms, even within the same species. The motivations for and implications of these behaviors have yet to be fully understood, since most species have yet to be fully studied.[253] According to Bagemihl, "the animal kingdom [does] it with much greater sexual diversity—including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex—than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept".[254]
A review paper by N. W. Bailey and Marlene Zuk looking into studies of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals challenges the view that such behaviour lowers reproductive success, citing several hypotheses about how same-sex sexual behavior might be adaptive; these hypotheses vary greatly among different species. Bailey and Zuk also suggest future research needs to look into evolutionary consequences of same-sex sexual behaviour, rather than only looking into origins of such behaviour.[255]
See also
Notes
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^ abcdefMary Ann Lamanna; Agnes Riedmann; Susan D Stewart (2014). Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society. Lernen lernen. p. 82. ISBN 1305176898. Retrieved February 11, 2016. The reason some individuals develop a gay sexual identity has not been definitively established – nor do we yet understand the development of heterosexuality. The American Psychological Association (APA) takes the position that a variety of factors impact a person's sexuality. The most recent literature from the APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors...is shaped at an early age...[and evidence suggests] biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality (American Psychological Association 2010).
^ abGail Wiscarz Stuart (2014). Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 502. ISBN 032329412X. Retrieved February 11, 2016. No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation.
^Gloria Kersey-Matusiak (2012). Delivering Culturally Competent Nursing Care. Springer-Verlag. p. 169. ISBN 0826193811. Retrieved February 10, 2016. Most health and mental health organizations do not view sexual orientation as a 'choice.'
^ abcd"Submission to the Church of England's Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality". The Royal College of Psychiatrists. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
^Långström, N.; Rahman, Q.; Carlström, E.; Lichtenstein, P. (2008). "Genetic and Environmental Effects on Same-sex Sexual Behavior: A Population Study of Twins in Sweden". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 39 (1): 75–80. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9386-1. PMID 18536986.
^Bailey JM, Vasey PL, Diamond LM, Breedlove SM, Vilain E, Epprecht M (2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (21): 45–101. doi:10.1177/1529100616637616. PMID 27113562.
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^ abc(Bagemihl 1999)
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References
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1990s
Bagemihl, Bruce (1999), Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural DiversitySt. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-19239-8
Bérubé, Allan, Coming out under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War TwoNew York: MacMillan 1990, ISBN 0-02-903100-1
Brown, Lester B. (1997), Lester B. Brown, ed., Two spirit people: American Indian, lesbian women and gay menRoutledge, ISBN 978-0-7890-0003-3
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2000s
Bernstein, Elizabeth; Schaffner, Laurie (2005), Regulating sex: the politics of intimacy and identityRoutledge, ISBN 978-0-415-94869-2
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Gunther, Scott Eric (2009). The Elastic Closet, A History of Homosexuality in France, 1942-present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-59510-1.
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Vanita, Ruth (2002), Queering India: same-sex love and eroticism in Indian culture and societyRoutledge, ISBN 978-0-415-92950-9
Journal articles
Bagley, Christopher; Tremblay, Pierre (1998), "On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27", Journal of HomosexualityNew York: Haworth Press, 36 (2): 1–18, doi:10.1300/j082v36n02_01, ISSN 0091-8369, OCLC 91129391
Crew, Louie; Norton, Rictor (1974), "The Homophobic Imagination", College English3, Nov 74, 36 (3): 272–90, doi:10.2307/374839, ISSN 0010-0994, JSTOR 374839, OCLC 427092211
Iemmola, Francesca; Ciani, Andrea Camperio (2009), "New Evidence of Genetic Factors Influencing Sexual Orientation in Men: Female Fecundity Increase in the Maternal Line" (Article)Archives of Sexual Behaviorno. 3: Springer, 38: 393–399, doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9381-6, ISSN 0004-0002, OCLC 360232526, PMID 18561014
LeVay, Simon (1991), "A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men.", Science253 (5023): 1034–7, doi:10.1126/science.1887219, ISSN 0036-8075, OCLC 121655996, PMID 1887219
McConaghy, N; Hadzi-Pavlovic, D; Stevens, C; Manicavasagar, V; Keller, M; MacGregor, S; Wright, M; Bailey, J; et al. (2006), "Fraternal Birth Order and Ratio of Heterosexual/Homosexual Feelings in Women and Men", Journal of Homosexuality51 (4): 161–174, doi:10.1300/J082v51n04_09, ISSN 0091-8369, OCLC 202629885, PMID 17135133
Hier werden weibliche Jugendliche dargestellt, die Sappho umgeben Gemälde von Lafond "Sappho singt für Homer", 1824. 
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